3,4',5,7-Tetrahydroxyflavon

Soluble in hot alcohol, ether or alkalies

Insoluble in benzene; slightly soluble in chloroform; soluble in acetic acid, alkalies; very soluble in ethanol, ethyl ether, acetone

277 °C

MP: 276-278 °C and 278-280 °C decomposes

285 - 287 °C

163.2 Ų [M+H]+ [CCS Type: DT; Buffer gas: N2; Ionization: APCI+; Dataset: TOXCAST; Source Identifier: DTXSID7020768]

159.2 Ų [M+H]+ [CCS Type: TW; Method: calibrated with polyalanine and drug standards]

160.32 Ų [M-H]- [CCS Type: DT; Method: single field calibrated with Agilent tune mix (Agilent)]

165.92 Ų [M-H]- [CCS Type: DT; Method: stepped-field]

175.34 Ų [M+Na]+ [CCS Type: TW; Method: calibrated with polyalanine and drug standards]

186 Ų [M+Na]+

This chemical does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 1.3% (1 of 77) of reports.

Danger

H301 (89.6%): Toxic if swallowed [Danger Acute toxicity, oral]

P203, P264, P270, P280, P301+P316, P318, P321, P330, P405, and P501 (click each P-code to see the statement)

Aggregated GHS information provided per 77 reports by companies from 8 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory. Each notification may be associated with multiple companies.

SRP: At the time of review, criteria for land treatment or burial (sanitary landfill) disposal practices are subject to significant revision. Prior to implementing land disposal of waste residue (including waste sludge), consult with environmental regulatory agencies for guidance on acceptable disposal practices.

It has been reported that tamoxifen is a substrate of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A, and kaempferol is an inhibitor of P-gp and CYP3A. Hence, it could be expected that kaempferol would affect the pharmacokinetics of tamoxifen. Thus, tamoxifen was administered orally (10 mg/kg) without or with oral kaempferol (2.5 and 10 mg/kg). In the presence of kaempferol, the total area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to time infinity (AUC) of tamoxifen was significantly greater, C(max) was significantly higher and F was considerably greater than those without kaempferol. The enhanced bioavailability of oral tamoxifen by oral kaempferol could have been due to an inhibition of CYP3A and P-gp by kaempferol. The presence of kaempferol did not alter the pharmacokinetic parameters of a metabolite of tamoxifen, 4-hydroxytamoxifen. This could have been because the contribution of CYP3A to the formation of 4-hydroxytamoxifen is not considerable in rats.

This study was to investigate the effect of kaempferol on the pharmacokinetics of etoposide after oral or intravenous administration of etoposide in rats. The oral (6 mg/kg) or intravenous (2 mg/kg) etoposide was administered to rats alone or 30 min after the oral kaempferol (1, 4, or 12 mg/kg) administration. Compared to the oral control group, the presence of kaempferol significantly (4 mg/kg, P < 0.05; 12 mg/kg, P < 0.01) increased the area under the plasma concentration time curve (AUC) and the peak concentration (C(max)) of the oral etoposide. Kaempferol decreased significantly (4 or 12 mg/kg, P < 0.05) the total body clearance (CL/F) of oral etoposide, while there was no significant change in the terminal halflife (t(1/2)), the elimination rate constant (K(el)) and the time to reach the peak concentration (T(max)) of etoposide in the presense of kaempferol. Consequently, the absolute bioavailability (AB%) of oral etoposide with kaempferol was significantly higher (4 mg/kg, P < 0.05; 12 mg/kg, P < 0.01) than those from the control group. Compared to the intravenous control group, the presence of kaempferol enhanced the AUC of intravenously administered etoposide, however, only presence of 12 mg/kg of kaempferol significant (P < 0.05) increased AUC of etoposide. The enhanced bioavailability of oral etoposide by kaempferol could have been due to an inhibition of cytochrom P450 (CYP) 3A and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in the intestinal or decreased total body clearance in the liver by kaempferol. The dosage regimen of etoposide should be taken into consideration for potential drug interaction when combined with kaempferol or dietary supplements containing kaempferol in patients.

Twenty male SD rats, weighing 220-260 g, were distributed randomly into 4 groups. The animals were fasted, but allowed free access to water for 12 hr before the administration of drugs. Nifedipine dissolved in corn oil was administered via gastric intubation to the rats in control group at a dose of 10 mg/kg. Kaempferol was administered orally to the other three groups with dose of 5, 10, 15 mg/kg, respectively, followed by oral administration of nifedipine 10 mg/kg. Blood samples were collected through tail vein in heparinized plastic microcentrifuge tubes before and after drug administration. The plasma concentration of NFP was monitored with reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Nimodipine was used as the internal standard. Statistical data evaluation was performed with Student's t-test and one-way analysis of variances. The maximal plasma concentration (C(max)) of the three treated groups were 0.51, 0.70 and 0.81 microg/ml, respectively. The area under the concentration-time curve (AUC(0-8)) were 1.81, 2.83 and 3.63 ug/(hr.mL(-1)), respectively. The C(max), AUC(0-8) and the mean retention time (MRT(0-8)) of nifedipine were significantly increased by simultaneous oral treatment with kaempferol (P<0.01). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the mean peak value time in plasma (T(max)) and the elimination half-life (t1/2(ke)) between the control and the treated groups. The concomitant oral use of kaempferol with nifedipine may influence the pharmacokinetic parameters of nifedipine in rats, which suggests that kaempferol might reduce the first-pass metabolism of nifedipine.

Quercetin, kaempferol and biapigenin significantly reduced neuronal death caused by 100 uM kainate plus 100 uM N-methyl-D-aspartate. The observed neuroprotection was correlated with prevention of delayed calcium deregulation and with the maintenance of mitochondrial transmembrane electric potential. The three compounds were able to reduce mitochondrial lipid peroxidation and loss of mitochondrial transmembrane electric potential caused by oxidative stress induced by ADP plus iron. ... the results suggest that the neuroprotective action induced by quercetin and kaempferol are mainly mediated by antioxidant effects ...

/ALTERNATIVE and IN VITRO TESTS/ Dietary flavonoids have attracted a great deal of attention as agents for preventing estrogen-related diseases, such as postmenopausal symptoms, and for reducing the risk of estrogen-dependent cancer. Kaempferol is one of the most commonly found dietary phytoestrogen. The aim of this study was to investigate the estrogenic and/or antiestrogenic effect of kaempferol, which can confirm its potency as a preventive agent against estrogen-related diseases. Kaempferol has both estrogenic and antiestrogenic activity, which are biphasic response on estrogen receptor. The estrogenic activity of kaempferol induced via ER-mediated pathway depending on E2 concentration (? 10-12 M). Kaempferol (10-5 M) also caused antiproliferative effect on MCF-7 cell in the presence of E2 (10-11 M) and restored to the addition of excess E2 (10-7 M), which confirms that antiproliferation of kaempferol was induced via ER-dependent pathway. However, at 10-4 M, concentration higher than the concentrations at which the estrogenic effects of kaempferol are detected (10-5 M), kaempferol induced strong antiproliferative effect, but were unaffected by the addition of excess E2 (10-7 M) indicating that kaempferol exerts antiproliferation via ER-independent pathway. In particular, kaempferol blocked the focus formation induced by E2, which confirms that kaempferol might inhibit the malignant transformation caused by estrogens. Therefore, ... kaempferol might regulate a suitable level of estrogenic activity in the body and is expected to have potential beneficial effects in preventing estrogen imbalance diseases (breast cancer, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease and etc.).

/ALTERNATIVE and IN VITRO TESTS/ Disturbances in energy homeostasis can result in obesity and other metabolic diseases. Here ... a metabolic pathway present in normal human skeletal muscle myoblasts that is activated by the small polyphenolic molecule kaempferol (KPF) /is examined/. Treatment with KPF leads to an approx 30% increase in skeletal myocyte oxygen consumption. The mechanism involves a several-fold increase in cyclic AMP (cAMP) generation and protein kinase A activation, and the effect of KPF can be mimicked via treatment with dibutyryl cAMP. Microarray and real-time PCR studies identified a set of metabolically relevant genes influenced by KPF including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1alpha, carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1, mitochondrial transcription factor 1, citrate synthase, and uncoupling protein-3, although KPF itself is not a direct mitochondrial uncoupler. The cAMP-responsive gene for type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (D2), an intracellular enzyme that activates thyroid hormone (T3) for the nucleus, is approximately threefold upregulated by KPF; furthermore, the activity half-life for D2 is dramatically and selectively increased as well. The net effect is an approx 10-fold stimulation of D2 activity as measured in cell sonicates, with a concurrent increase of approx 2.6-fold in the rate of T3 production, which persists even 24 h after KPF has been removed from the system. The effects of KPF on D2 are independent of sirtuin activation and only weakly reproduced by other small polyphenolic molecules such as quercetin and fisetin. ...

/ALTERNATIVE and IN VITRO TESTS/ The purpose of this study was to compare the basal cytotoxicity and metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity of kaempferol, quercetin and rutin. McCoy cells were exposed to various concentrations of the flavonols with and without the S9 system. The neutral red uptake assay was used to determine viability after 24 h at 35-37 degrees C. Dose-response curves were established for each flavonol in the presence and absence of external metabolizing systems. Kaempferol and quercetin were cytotoxic and provoked a dose-dependent decrease in cell viability, without the S9 system. The hepatic S9 microsomal fraction metabolized these compounds to less cytotoxic metabolites. In contrast, rutin at 500 microg/ml failed to produce any overt signs of toxicity in either assay.

/ALTERNATIVE and IN VITRO TESTS/ Some plant flavonoids in the form of whole plant extracts have been used topically for skin inflammatory disorders. Since matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1, collagenase-1) plays an important role in unbalanced turn-over or rapid breakdown of collagen molecules in human inflamed/UV-irradiated skin, the effects of natural flavonoids on MMP-1 activity and MMP-1 expression were studied to establish the therapeutic potential. Against recombinant human MMP-1, flavonols such as quercetin and kaempferol were strong inhibitors with IC50 values of 39.6 and 43.7 microM, respectively, while flavones such as apigenin and wogonin showed only weak inhibitory activity. In addition, quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and wogonin (12.5-25.0 microM) strongly inhibited MMP-1 induction in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-treated human dermal fibroblasts, but naringenin (a flavanone) did not. By means of the electrophoretic mobility shift assay, these flavonoids were also found to inhibit activation of the transcription factor, activator protein-1 (AP-1). Moreover, quercetin inhibited extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, and kaempferol inhibited p38 MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation among the MAPKs tested. In contrast, flavones and naringenin did not inhibit the activation of these three MAPKs. These results have shown, for the first time, that naturally-occurring flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and wogonin) inhibit MMP-1 and down-regulate MMP-1 expression via an inhibition of the AP-1 activation although the cellular inhibitory mechanisms differ depending on their chemical structures. Therefore, certain plant flavonoids or plant extracts with these flavonoids as major components may be beneficial to treat some skin inflammatory disorders and to protect skin from photoaging.

Kaempferol

Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans

Volume 31: (1983) Some Food Additives, Feed Additives and Naturally Occurring Substances

1987

1987

3, not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. (L135)

/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Subchronic or Prechronic Exposure/ Sprague Dawley/ rats were ovariectomized (OVx) along with sham-operated rats and left for 4 weeks. Daily oral administration of K (5 mg/kg body weight) was then started to one group of OVx rats, and continued for 10 weeks. Kaempferol levels were found to be 0.311 and 0.838 nM at the end of 4 and 10 weeks, respectively. Kaempferol exhibited no estrogenicity at the uterine level. The K-treated group exhibited significantly higher bone mineral density (BMD) in the trabecular regions (femur neck, proximal tibia and vertebrae) and lower serum ALP (bone turnover marker) compared with the OVx rats. The compressive energy of the vertebrae was significantly higher in the OVx+K-treated group compared with the OVx group. Kaempferol treatment of OVx rats resulted in the increase in osteoprogenitor cells as well as inhibition of adipocyte differentiation from bone marrow cells compared with the OVx group. Together we show that Kaempferol is non-estrogenic in vivo and exerts bone anabolic activity with attendant inhibition of bone marrow adipogenesis.

/GENOTOXICITY/ Kaempferol induces mutations to 8-azaguanine resistance in V79 Chinese hamster cells; activity was increased by the addition of a rat liver 15,000 x g supernatant fraction.

/GENOTOXICITY/ Kaempferol was mutagenic in the sex-linked recessive lethal test in Drosophila melanogaster after feeding to adult males.

/GENOTOXICITY/ Kaempferol gave negative results in the Bacillus subtilis rec assay for DNA damage, when tested without exogenous metabolic activation. It is mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium strains TA1537, TA98 and TA100, but not TA1535 or TA1538. It requires activation by a mammalian microsomal fraction, and the mutagenicity is increased by prior induction with Aroclor or methylcholanthrene, but not phenobarbital.

For more Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for KAEMPFEROL (11 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

/SRP:/ Immediate first aid: Ensure that adequate decontamination has been carried out. If patient is not breathing, start artificial respiration, preferably with a demand valve resuscitator, bag-valve-mask device, or pocket mask, as trained. Perform CPR if necessary. Immediately flush contaminated eyes with gently flowing water. Do not induce vomiting. If vomiting occurs, lean patient forward or place on the left side (head-down position, if possible) to maintain an open airway and prevent aspiration. Keep patient quiet and maintain normal body temperature. Obtain medical attention. /Poisons A and B/

/SRP:/ Basic treatment: Establish a patent airway (oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway, if needed). Suction if necessary. Watch for signs of respiratory insufficiency and assist ventilations if needed. Administer oxygen by nonrebreather mask at 10 to 15 L/min. Monitor for pulmonary edema and treat if necessary ... . Monitor for shock and treat if necessary ... . Anticipate seizures and treat if necessary ... . For eye contamination, flush eyes immediately with water. Irrigate each eye continuously with 0.9% saline (NS) during transport ... . Do not use emetics. For ingestion, rinse mouth and administer 5 mL/kg up to 200 mL of water for dilution if the patient can swallow, has a strong gag reflex, and does not drool ... . Cover skin burns with dry sterile dressings after decontamination ... . /Poisons A and B/

/SRP:/ Advanced treatment: Consider orotracheal or nasotracheal intubation for airway control in the patient who is unconscious, has severe pulmonary edema, or is in severe respiratory distress. Positive-pressure ventilation techniques with a bag valve mask device may be beneficial. Consider drug therapy for pulmonary edema ... . Consider administering a beta agonist such as albuterol for severe bronchospasm ... . Monitor cardiac rhythm and treat arrhythmias as necessary ... . Start IV administration of D5W /SRP: "To keep open", minimal flow rate/. Use 0.9% saline (NS) or lactated Ringer's if signs of hypovolemia are present. For hypotension with signs of hypovolemia, administer fluid cautiously. Watch for signs of fluid overload ... . Treat seizures with diazepam or lorazepam ... . Use proparacaine hydrochloride to assist eye irrigation ... . /Poisons A and B/

Pure kaempferol and a number of related flavonoids were examined as MAOIs in-vitro. Kaempferol, apigenin and chrysin proved to be potent monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (MAOI)s, but produced more pronounced inhibition of MAO-A than MAO-B. IC50 (50% inhibition concentration) values for the ability of these three flavones to inhibit MAO-A were 7 x 10(-7), 1 x 10(-6) and 2 x 10(-6) M, respectively. Ginkgo biloba leaf extract and kaempferol were found to have no effect ex-vivo on rat or mouse brain MAO or on concentrations of dopamine, noradrenaline, 5-hydroxytryptamine and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Kaempferol was shown to protect against N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced neuronal toxicity in-vitro in rat cortical cultures, but did not prevent DSP-4-induced noradrenergic neurotoxicity in an in-vivo model. Both Ginkgo biloba extract and kaempferol were demonstrated to be antioxidants in a lipid-peroxidation assay. This data indicates that the MAO-inhibiting activity of Ginkgo biloba extract is primarily due to the presence of kaempferol. Ginkgo biloba extract has properties indicative of potential neuroprotective ability.

Kaempferol is a dietary flavonoid that is thought to function as a selective estrogen receptor modulator. ... This study ... established that kaempferol also functions as an inverse agonist for estrogen-related receptors alpha and gamma (ERRalpha and ERRgamma). ... Kaempferol binds to ERRalpha and ERRgamma and blocks their interaction with coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1alpha (PGC-1alpha). Kaempferol also suppressed the expressions of ERR-target genes pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 and 4 (PDK2 and PDK4). This evidence suggests that kaempferol may exert some of its biological effect through both estrogen receptors and estrogen-related receptors.

To elucidate the metabolism of hispidulin in the large intestine, its biotransformation by the pig caecal microflora was studied. In addition, the efficiency of the pig caecal microflora to degrade galangin (3,5,7-trihydroxyflavone), kaempferol (3,5,7,4?-tetrahydroxyflavone), apigenin (5,7,4?-trihydroxyflavone), and luteolin (5,7,3?,4?- tetrahydroxyflavone) was investigated. Identification of the formed metabolites was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-diode array detection, HPLC-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry, and high-resolution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The caecal microflora transformed ... kaempferol to 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, phloroglucinol, and 4-methylphenol; ... To elucidate to what extent different hydroxylation patterns on the B-ring influence the degradation degree of flavonoids, the conversions of galangin and kaempferol as well as that of apigenin and luteolin were compared with those of quercetin (3,5,7,3?, 4?-pentahydroxyflavone) and chrysin (5.7-dihydroxyflavone), respectively. Regardless of the flavonoid subclass, the presence of a hydroxy group at the 4?-position seems to be a prerequisite for fast breakdown. An additional hydroxy group at the B-ring did not affect the degradation degree.

The metabolism of the flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol by rat hepatocytes was investigated using liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray mass spectrometry (LC-ESI MS). Quercetin and kaempferol were extensively metabolized (98.8 +/- 0.1% and 81.0 +/- 5.1% respectively, n = 4), with four glucuronides of quercetin and two of kaempferol being detected after incubation. The glucuronides of quercetin and kaempferol formed upon incubation with rat hepatocytes were identified as the same ones formed after incubation with the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoform UGT1A9. In addition, plasma samples from human volunteers taken after consumption of capsules of Ginkgo biloba, a plant rich in flavonoid glycosides, were analysed by LC-MS for the presence of flavonoid glucuronides and flavonoid glycosides. Reported is evidence for the presence of flavonoid glycosides in samples of plasma. The results suggest that UGT1A9 is a key UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoform for the metabolism of flavonoids, and that absorption of intact flavonoid glycosides is possible.

Kaempferol is a flavonoid widely distributed in edible plants and has been shown to be genotoxic to V79 cells in the absence of external metabolizing systems. The presence of an external metabolizing system, such as rat liver homogenates (S9 mix), leads to an increase in its genotoxicity, which is attributed to its biotransformation to the more genotoxic flavonoid quercetin, via the cytochrome P450 (CYP) mono-oxygenase system. ...

Kaempferol has known human metabolites that include Kaempferol-3-glucuronide and (2S,3S,4S,5R)-6-[3,5-Dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-oxochromen-7-yl]oxy-3,4,5-trihydroxyoxane-2-carboxylic acid.

The aim of this study was to assess kaempferol bioavailability in healthy humans, after bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) consumption through the monitoring of the excretion in relation to intake. In seven healthy subjects receiving kaempferol from cooked bean, maximum excretion of hydrolyzed flavonol was obtained after 2-8 hr. Intersexual variations in urinary excretion were found to be 6.10+/-5.50% and 5.40+/-5.40% of the kaempferol dose for male and female subjects, respectively. Although a 6.72-fold inter-individual variation between the highest and lowest excretion concentrations was found, all individuals exhibited similar excretion profiles. Moreover, a direct correlation between the percentage of kaempferol excreted and the body mass index of volunteers was observed with a correlation index equal to 0.80. All except two individuals exhibited a first peak of kaempferol excretion 2 hr after ingestion. The study reveals information about inter-individual excretion capacity after kaempferol intake and that kaempferol can be used as a biomarker for flavonol consumption.

... A pharmacokinetic study of kaempferol from endive ... /was studied in / four healthy males and four healthy females. Kaempferol, from a relatively low dose (9 mg), was absorbed from endive with a mean maximum plasma concentration of 0.1 uM, at a time of 5.8 hr, indicating absorption from the distal section of the small intestine and/or the colon. Although a 7.5-fold interindividual variation between the highest and lowest maximum plasma concentration was observed, most individuals showed remarkably consistent pharmacokinetic profiles. This contrasts with profiles for other flavonoids that are absorbed predominantly from the large intestine (eg rutin). An average of 1.9% of the kaempferol dose was excreted in 24 hr. Most subjects also showed an early absorption peak, probably corresponding to kaempferol-3-glucoside, present at a level of 14% in the endive. Kaempferol-3-glucuronide was the major compound detected in plasma and urine. Quercetin was not detected in plasma or urine indicating a lack of phase I hydroxylation of kaempferol. Kaempferol is absorbed more efficiently than quercetin in humans even at low oral doses. The predominant form in plasma is a 3-glucuronide conjugate, and interindividual variation in absorption and excretion is low, suggesting that urinary kaempferol could be used as a biomarker for exposure.

Ten adult volunteers with an average age 28 years were given a single oral dose of six tablets of Ginkgo biloba extract. Quercetin and kaempferol in different period of human urine were determined by using RP-HPLC. The results showed the elimination rate constant k and the absorption rate constant ka of quercetin were slightly more than that of kaempferol; and the absorption half-life (t(1/2a)), the elimination half-life (t(1/2)) and t(max) of quercetin were less than that of kaempferol, the differences were, however, not statistically significant. The mean values of ka were 0.61 hr(-1) and 0.55 hr(-1), t(1/2a) 1.51 hr and 1.56 hr, k 0.37 hr(-1) and 0.30 hr(-1), t(1/2) 2.17 hr and 2.76 hr, T(max) 2.30 hr and 2.68 hr for quercetin and kaempferol, respectively, which mean absorption and elimination of quercetin and kaempferol are 0.17% and 0.22%, respectively. Quercetin and kaempferol are excreted in the human urine mainly as glucuronides.

The objective of this study was to investigate whether kaempferol and quercetin could be transported into primary cultured cerebral neurons, to establish a practical HPLC method with UV detection for the two flavonols in the neurons, and to study the uptake and transport behaviors of them through the neurons. The present results showed that the level of kaempferol in the neurons increased linearly and then reached a plateau with incubation time at the high concentration of 10 ?g/mL, but not at the other two concentrations of 1 and 0.1 ug/mL. However, the levels of quercetin in the neurons were not detected at the three incubating concentrations, and there was a new peak detected in the cell whose retention time was shorter (3.42 min) than that of quercetin (4.65 min). This phenomenon suggested that quercetin might be transported into the neurons and then metabolized quickly to some derivative. Kaempferol could be transported into the neurons in a concentration- and time-dependent manner when the neurons were incubated with the culture medium containing kaempferol at the high dose. There was an apparent correlation between the concentrations of kaempferol in the medium and in the cell, indicating that the uptake of kaempferol in the cell increased along with its dose (10 ug/mL). However, there was a negative correlation between the concentrations of quercetin in the medium and in the cell. The results suggested that kaempferol and quercetin were disposed by the neurons at different way, and this might be an important factor for their different effects on primary cultured cortical cells.

Antioxidants useful in cosmetics. /From table/

Flavone dye

Kaempferol is a natural flavonoid which has been isolated from Delphinium, Witch-hazel, grapefruit, and other plant sources.