플루토늄

The health physics aspects of an accidental plutonium fire can be serious. A fire can burn through containment structures, resulting in the dispersal of PuO2 over a wide area, with the potential for inhalation exposure during the fire or during subsequent decontamination efforts. The conditions under which a plutonium fire can occur in a dry glovebox have been studied. With only 5% oxygen in nitrogen, the metal will burn easily. At the 1% level, however, a fire will not continue to burn unless heat is supplied. Turnings must be generated in a dry atmosphere and should be converted to the oxide as soon as convenient, preferably on the same day they are made.

Fire safety: Because of the inhalation hazard, fires in plutonium facilities require particular care. It is important to distinguish between fires that threaten to involve plutonium and those in which the plutonium is burning. For plutonium metal, complete exclusion of oxygen and/or rapid heat removal are the only truly effective means to extinguish fires. Due to reactivity and criticality concerns, water may not be the appropriate extinguishing agent for a fire, as it acts as a moderator and may lead to criticality. Fire systems are therefore tailored to the facility situation.

The possibility of a fire or explosion in a plutonium facility is probably the most serious threat because the consequences of a fire could lead to loss of containment and subsequent dispersement of highly mobile plutonium particulates. In addition, fighting the fire with water to maintain containment could create the potential for a criticality accident and/or loss of containment in the immediate vicinity.

Radioactive material, fissile, contains uranium-235, plutonium-239, plutonium-241, or any combination of the foregoing. The concern is primarily from the criticality aspects of the material. Radiation is present and does present a risk especially from ingestion or inhalation. In case of trouble with these shipments all unauthorized persons should be kept as far away as possible until qualified people with proper equipment can be obtained from the state or local Radiological Response Team, the Department of Transportation, or the shipper. /Fissile plutonium/

Radioactive material, fissile, first aid responses: call emergency medical care. If not affecting injury, remove and isolate clothing and shoes; shower victim with soap and water. If not injured, remove and isolate clothing and shoes; shower victim with soap and water. Except for the injured, detain persons and equipment exposed to radioactivity until arrival or instruction of radiation authority. Advise medical care personnel that injured persons may be contaminated with radioactivity. /Plutonium-239, -241/

TIH (Toxic Inhalation Hazard) - Term used to describe gases and volatile liquids that are toxic when inhaled. Some are TIH materials themselves, e.g., chlorine, and some release TIH gases when spilled in water, e.g., chlorosilanes. [ERG 2016].

Plutonium fires should not be approached without protective clothing and respirators unless the fire is enclosed in a glove box. The most effective agent for extinguishing plutonium fires has been found to be magnesium oxide sand. Glove boxes which contain pyrophoric forms of plutonium should also contain an amount of magnesium oxide adequate for extinguishment. The burning plutonium should be completely covered with the sand to as great a depth as possible. ... Argon is a very effective extinguishing agent, providing the oxygen content in the atmosphere is maintained at 4% or less. .... This is an important point, since it is nearly impossible to reduce the oxygen content to 4% or less during argon flooding in most fume hoods. Argon may be used effectively to cool the burning plutonium prior to application of the magnesium oxide sand. ... Typical foam or dry chemical agents are not effective extinguishing agents. Fusible salt agents have been shown to be effective on small-scale plutonium fires. However, the expansion which accompanies the oxidation of plutonium has caused the fusible salt coating to crack, allowing the plutonium to re-ignite.

Fire extinguishing must contain the plutonium and should not create a nuclear criticality potential. The preferred method of extinguishing a plutonium fire is by excluding oxygen, either by inerting the glove-box atmosphere or by smothering the plutonium with a powder, eg, graphite, magnesia, or sodium carbonate. Controlled burning of plutonium also is recommended. /Fissile plutonium/

Water is generally acceptable for use as an extinguishing agent for fires involving plutonium. In rare cases where criticality safety considerations preclude the introduction of moderators such as water, suitable alternative fire protection measures need to be incorporated into the facility design.

Radioactive material, Type A package are materials that pose a minimal risk to transport workers, emergency response personnel and the public during transportation. If material on fire or involved in fire, contact the local, state, or Department of Energy Radiological Response Team. Do not use water. Use graphite, soda ash, powdered sodium chloride, or suitable dry powder.

For more Fire Fighting Procedures (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Storage Recommendations for Plutonium Metal and Dioxide. Metal and oxide are both suitable storage forms for plutonium (100 years). Organics (plastics, elastomers) must be excluded from the primary container for both forms. Converting between metal and oxide is not recommended (negative impact of waste, cost, environmental safety and health risk). /Plutonium metal and dioxide/

Plutonium should be stored as pure metal or in its dioxide PuO2 form in a dry, inert or slightly oxidizing atmosphere. ... Plutonium sesquioxide and hydride should be converted to plutonium dioxide before storage. Primary and secondary containers should be hermetically sealed and contain no plastics or other materials that decompose as a result of radiation exposure. /Plutonium compounds/

Gloveboxes with dry air or inert atmospheres are still not suitable for long-term storage. Long-term storage of plutonium-239 is accomplished by placing the metal in a sealed can, which is usually placed inside one or more cans. As the plutonium decays, the can may build up pressure due to accumulation of helium from the alpha particles and from radiolysis of impurities. The cans are monitored for "bulging" so they can be repacked before the pressure builds up and the cans burst. /Plutonium-239/

Plutonium-238 can generate enough heat to require ... packaging in special containers that dissipate heat. If plutonium-238 is stored next to flammable material, a fire may result. If it is stored near material that degrades by heat, flammable or explosive gases may be formed. /Plutonium-238/

For more Storage Conditions (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (9 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Decontamination is most successful when the material can be recycled for use in a nuclear facility since the need to prove releasability (cleanliness) is eliminated. Nevertheless, cleaning material for unrestricted release is also possible in some cases. It may also be possible to decontaminate an item enough to change its classification from TRU/transuranic/ waste to LLW /low-level waste/, thereby allowing immediate disposal of the item, while a relatively small quantity of decontamination waste is stored as TRU waste. Electropolishing to remove the thinnest metal surface has been very effective and produces a relatively small waste volume, especially when one of the wetted sponge units is used rather than an emersion tank. Surface scabbling has been used in decontamination of concrete, and various abrasive blasting methods have also been effective. Strippable and self-stripping coatings may be used to decontaminate surfaces, even though the primary application of strippable coatings has been in preventing contamination of surfaces. /Plutonium compounds/

If a facility process requires the generation of plutonium-contaminated liquids, it is probably best to ensure that the mother liquid is demineralized water and that plutonium is the only contaminant added. In this case, the liquid can be filtered, demineralized, and recycled. Any other chemicals added to the water will complicate treatment, increase the volume of secondary waste, and diminish the opportunity for recycle. Organic contaminants such as oils, solvents, and detergents will likely foul the ion exchange resin, greatly increasing resin volume. /Plutonium-contaminated liquids/

Plutonium hydride has recently become a compound of interest for separating plutonium scrap from other materials that do not readily unite with hydrogen. The reaction between plutonium and hydrogen apparently proceeds by the initial formation of PuH2. ... Because the hydriding reaction is fully reversible, plutonium metal can be recovered by pumping off the hydrogen in a suitable vacuum furnace. This metal typically contains significant amounts of plutonium oxide but is suitable for feed to either molten salt extraction or electrorefining processes. The hydride can also be converted to the oxide. The advantage of the hydride recovery process is its ability to recover a large fraction of the scrap in metallic form. This method, therefore, has a major economic advantage over chemical recycling and subsequent reduction to metal. It is being used as a production aid for metallic scrap recovery. /Plutonium hydride/

A pamphlet published by the Energy Research and Development Administration in May 1976 entitled Radioactive Waste Management at Hanford describes one type of traditional reprocessing plant ... /that is/ designed for recovery of neptunium as well as plutonium and uranium. The Purex Extraction portion of the Hanford Reprocessing Plant has processing equipment for sequentially dissolving depleted fuel rods, treating such solutions with extractants for the recovery of components such as plutonium and uranium and for the isolation of fission products. ... The depleted fuel rods are dissolved to provide an aqueous solution which is subjected to solvent extraction to recover the plutonium. ... The ... plutonium stream is purified by a series of processing steps. The fission products are separated and processed in an appropriate manner.

Plutonium facilities should have a waste minimization program. The objective of a waste minimization program is the cost-effective reduction in the generation and disposal of hazardous, radioactive, and mixed waste. The preferred method is to reduce the total volume and/or toxicity of hazardous waste generated at the source, which minimizes the volume and complexity for waste disposal. The waste minimization program applies to all present and future activities of the facilities that generate hazardous, radioactive, and/or mixed wastes. ... Many operational controls involve measures to ensure that the waste generated is TRU waste rather than mixed-TRU waste, or that if it is mixed-TRU, it is of a composition that can be treated. Tight controls in the following areas are necessary to minimize mixed waste (and hazardous waste) problems: procurement of hazardous chemicals, actions of subcontractors and vendors, and training of workers. In some cases, decontamination processes have been used that result in mixed waste, such as Freon cleaning, electropolishing, and chemical decontamination. These should be used only after due consideration of the waste management consequences. In some cases, these mixed wastes can be readily treated; in other cases, their use needs to be avoided. Some new techniques are designed specifically for waste minimization and waste classification control. For example, one method involves abrasive blasting with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), which sublimes after use and can be exhausted through a HEPA filter, leaving no added material to the waste. Decontamination with high-pressure water has some similar advantages, but care must be taken to ensure that used decontamination solutions do not spread contamination. /Plutonium/

Plutonium waste treatment and decontamination may benefit from processes using photolysis or microwave discharge to produce active fluorine species from FOOF or CF4/O2 mixtures, which will react with plutonium or plutonium dioxide to form PuF6. /Plutonium fluoride/

/SRP/ Wastes in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) are from the nuclear weapons industry (plutonium) - research and development. For a waste to be accepted at WIPP it must be a transuranic "TRU" waste and: (1) </= 100 nanoCi/gram, (2) an alpha emitting transuranium isotope with atomic number greater than uranium, and (3) have a half life greater than 20 years. The wastes must be handled remotely if they produce >/= 200 millirems/hr; if less, they can be contact handled.

Program design decisions can affect TRU waste-generation. For example, the quantity of protective clothing may be a significant factor. If an incinerator is available, combustible protective clothing may be selected to have a low ash content and generate a minimum of harmful effluents such as oxides of nitrogen or halogenated compounds. In other facilities, water-washable, reusable protective clothing may minimize waste disposal. /Plutonium/

For more Disposal Methods (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (11 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

The successful operation of a plutonium facility requires scrupulous attention to providing adequate radiation protection and maintaining contamination control through the implementation of a quality health physics program... . Prompt dose assessment is important for demonstrating compliance with standards, providing information to workers, establishing an accurate historical record, and for responding to accident and incident situations. /Plutonium/

In any facility that handles radioactive materials, the major controls protecting workers, the public, and the environment are structures and installed equipment, which shield, contain, and confine the radioactive materials. However, to allow useful work to be performed in the facility and to assure that its protective features remain effective, a number of administrative controls are ordinarily required. These administrative controls are usually contained in a series of procedures related to the operations and maintenance activities to be carried out in the facility. All personnel who work in controlled areas should be familiar with the administrative controls that apply to their work. When changes or additions to administrative controls are made, these changes or additions should be effectively communicated to all persons who may be affected. /Plutonium/

Radiation Protection Procedures: A plutonium facility should have a written policy on radiation protection, including a policy on keeping exposures ALARA. All radiation protection procedures and controls should have formal, recognizable technical bases for limits, methods, and personnel protection standards. Procedures should be adequately documented, updated periodically, and maintained in a centralized historical file. A control system should be established to account for all copies and ensure that all new procedures are included in the historical files. A designated period of time for maintaining historical files should be established. ... In addition, radiation protection procedures should have a documented approval system and established intervals for review and/or revision. A tracking system should be developed to ensure that the required reviews and revisions occur. /Plutonium/

A thorough radiation protection training program should be established at plutonium facilities. Separate training programs should be established for general employees, radiation workers, and radiation control technicians. The training of all staff members should be carefully documented. /Plutonium/

For more Preventive Measures (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (26 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

The Physical Agents TLV Committee accepts the occupational exposure guidance of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). ... ICRP Guidelines for Exposure to Ionizing Radiation: Effective Dose (a) in any single year, 50 mSv, (b) averaged over 5 years, 20 mSv per year. Annual Equivalent Dose to: (a) lens of the eye, 150 mSv, (b) skin, 500 mSv, (c) hands and feet, 500 mSv. Embryo-Fetus exposures once the pregnancy is known - monthly equivalent dose 0.5 mSv - dose to the surface of women's abdomen (lower trunk) 2 mSv for the remainder of the pregnancy - intake of radionuclide one twentieth of Annual Limit on Intake (ALI). ...

The Physical Agents TLV Committee accepts the occupational exposure guidance of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Ionizing radiation includes particulate radiation (e.g., alpha particles and beta particles emitted from radioactive materials, and neutrons from nuclear reactors and accelerators) and electromagnetic radiation (e.g., gamma rays emitted from radioactive materials and X-rays from electron accelerators and X-ray machines) with energy greater than 12.4 electron-volts (eV) ... The guiding principle of radiation protection is to avoid all unnecessary exposures. ICRP has established principles of radiological protection. There are (1) the justification of a work practice: No work practice involving exposure to ionizing radiation should be adopted unless it produces sufficient benefit to the exposed individuals or the society to offset the detriment it causes. (2) The optimization of a workpractice: All radiation exposures must be kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), economic and social factors being taken into account. (3) The individual dose limits: The radiation dose from all relevant sources should not exceed the /ICRP/ prescribed dose limits.

Half-life: 87.7 years /Plutonium-238/

Half-life: 4.210X10+4 years /Plutonium-239/

Half-life: 6,560 years /Plutonium-240/

Half-life: 14.4 years /Plutonium-241/

For more Radiation Limits and Potential (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (36 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Protective clothing, commonly of Tyvex material, is used to keep contamination off personal clothing and skin. It does not stop the external radiation exposure (except alpha rays), but it helps prevent the spread of contamination both onto and into the body. /Plutonium isotopes/

During operations in which there is a potential to breach a containment system (such as glove changes or seal-outs) and create airborne radioactivity, respiratory protection is the primary method of preventing internal dose from inhalation. To minimize the possibility of inhalation, individuals must ensure the physical integrity of the respirator, obtain a good seal, and ensure the protection factor of the respirator is adequate. There are also methods to prevent injection wounds (such as placing leather gloves over glovebox gloves or ensuring there are no sharp objects inside containments). If personnel have any suspicion of an injection wound, they should immediately seek the assistance of the site radiological control organization. /Plutonium isotopes/

... For the direct handling of kilogram quantities of plutonium, lead lined gloves (Rad-Bar) are recommended.

Pu-238 can generate enough heat to require handling with insulated gloves (or another insulator)... /Plutonium-238/

For more Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

The recommendations in the American National Standards Institute standard, ANSI Z88.2-1992, American National Standard For Respiratory Protection, are endorsed by the NRC and may be used by licensees in establishing a respiratory protection program with the /several/exceptions. /including limitations that do not permit or greatly restrict the use of quarter-facepiece respirators and supplied air respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) that operate in the demand mode./

Applicability of OSHA's Respiratory Protection Rules: If an NRC licensee is using respiratory protection to protect workers against nonradiological hazards, the OSHA requirements apply. If the NRC has jurisdiction and is responsible for inspection, the ... NRC will inform the licensee and OSHA if the NRC observes an unsafe condition relative to nonradiological hazards. In general, .... if a licensee is in compliance with the NRC regulations in Subpart H, the licensee is considered to be in compliance with the corresponding and comparable OSHA regulations on respiratory protection. ... In situations involving mixed hazards, such as airborne radioactive materials and nonradioactive hazardous materials, compliance with 10 CFR Part 20 alone may not provide sufficient protection.

/Plutonium/ was first produced in 1940 ... the adult human probably has about 2 pCi plutonium in his total body.

Plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 cannot be distinguished by alpha spectroscopy and are usually reported together(1). Plutonium-239 concentrations in tissues from 12 autopsy cases in New York City (1973-76) were 0.00024, 0.0007, 0.00017, and 0.0004 pCi/g in lung, liver, vertebrae, and gonads, respectively(2). Median plutonium-239+plutonium-240 concentrations of 0.00016, 0.00012, 0.000095, 0.0007 and 0.000049 pCi/g in ribs, vertebrae, femur, liver and lungs, respectively, were reported in tissues samples from autopsy cases of non-occupationally exposed individuals from Great Britain(2). Plutonium-239+plutonium-240 concentrations of 0.00022, 0.00019, 0.00015, 0.00014, and 0.00018 pCi/g in ribs, vertebrae, femur, liver and lungs, respectively, were reported in tissues samples from autopsy cases of individuals living near a plutonium processing plant in Great Britain(2).

... The radioactivity /of plutonium/ (mainly due to fallout) measured in autopsied human tissues of nonoccupationally exposed persons ranged, at the beginning of the 1980s, from 1 to 10 mBq/kg for lung for populations as different as those of the United States, Finland, Western Europe, and Japan. The values for the liver and vertebra burdens ranged from 10 to 40 and 3 to 40 mBecqueral/kg, respectively. For tracheobronchial lymph nodes, the burden may be as much as 100 mBq/kg.

Treatment reversing the effects of irradiation is currently not possible. Anaesthetics and antiemetics are administered to counter the symptoms of exposure, as well as antibiotics for countering secondary infections due to the resulting immune system deficiency. (L1852)

A series of papers have been published on a lifespan study in which female Wistar rats were exposed to 239-Pu aerosols. ... The study consisted of 2,105 exposed and 1,052 sham-exposed rats. ... The rats were exposed by nose inhalation only to a high-fired mixture of 169-Yb2O3-239-PuO2 with an MMAD of 1.6 +/- 0.11 um. The average activity ratio of Yb:Pu was 0.4 ... . The animals were permitted to live out their lifespan, and an extensive range of tissues was examined histopathologically. Survival was reduced only for rats exposed to doses > 30 Gy. Except for pulmonary tumors, no significant difference was found in tumor location or type between the controls and the exposed rats ... . Ninety-nine primary lung tumors were identified, of which 92% were classified as malignant and 80% were carcinomas. Of the malignant tumors, 49 were squamous-cell carcinomas, 23 adenocarcinomas, nine haemangiosarcomas, seven adenosquamous carcinomas and three fibrosarcomas. In the controls, one adenocarcinoma was observed. Animals exposed to < 1.5 Gy developed only four adenomas. The lowest doses at which ... tumors developed were 1.5 Gy for squamous-cell carcinoma, 3.1 Gy for adenocarcinoma, 4.1 Gy for hemangiosarcoma and about 9 Gy for adenosquamous carcinoma and fibrosarcoma. The incidences of all lung tumors were 0.095% in the control rats, 0.21% in the 1,877 rats that received lung doses < 1 Gy and 41% in the 228 rats that received > 1 Gy. ... Five pleural mesotheliomas were observed among the 2,105 exposed rats. In a comparison of the results of this study with those of previous studies in which 239-PuO2 was given by ip injection, the 239-PuO2 particles were found aggregated on mesothelial surfaces after injection, resulting in a higher relative incidence of these tumors (four mesotheliomas in 527 exposed rats). /High fired ytterbium and plutonium-239 oxides/

In experiments to investigate the possibility that transgenerational effects from preconceptional paternal irradiation might render offspring more vulnerable to secondary exposure to an unrelated carcinogen, 239-plutonium citrate (at 0, 128 or 256 Bq/g) was administered by iv injection to male mice 12 weeks before mating with normal females. Two strains of mouse were used - CBA/H and BDF1. ... Female offspring of BDF1 mice were injected with N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) as a secondary carcinogen at 10 weeks of age and monitored for the onset of leukemia or lymphoma. ... By 250 days, 68% of MNU-treated control animals (no preconceptional paternal injection) had developed thymic lymphoma (62%) or leukemia (38%). The first case arose 89 days after MNU administration. In the groups in which the male parent had been treated preconceptionally, leukemia or lymphoma developed 28 days earlier, the incidence rising to 90% by 250 days, so that leukemia (65%) predominated over lymphoma (35%). This second-generation excess of leukemia appears to be the result of preconceptional paternal injection with 239-Pu and may be related to inherited changes that affect the development of hematopoietic stem cells./239-Plutonium citrate/

When /50 ug beryllium/ was combined with a lung burden of 60 and 170 Bq 239-PuO2, which alone caused crude malignant lung tumor incidences of 8% (6 of 60 rats) and 7% (2 of 27 rats), respectively, crude tumor incidences ranged from 57% (16 of 38 rats) to 90% (54 of 60 rats). /Beryllium and 239-Plutonium oxide/

/A study investigated/ the potential carcinogenic interactions between inhaled beryllium metal and 239-PuO2 in some 5,456 male and female F344 rats. ... When ... beryllium was combined with a lung burden of 60 and 170 Bq 239-PuO2, which alone caused crude malignant lung tumor incidences of 8% (6 of 60 rats) and 7% (2 of 27 rats), respectively, crude tumor incidences ranged from 57% (16 of 28 rats) to 90% (54 of 60 rats). /Beryllium combined with 239-Plutonium oxide/

Exposure to alpha radiation and genotoxic chemical comprised four groups, each of 32 animals receiving plutonium inhalation followed by urethane (PU), plutonium followed by saline (PS), mock inhalation followed by urethane (MU), and mock inhalation followed by saline (MS). Exposures consisted of initial lung burdens of 925 Bq 239-PU and ip urethane injections of 1mg/g body weight two weeks later . Eight weeks after the injections, PS-treated animals showed no increase in pulmonary tumors over control animals (MS), whereas practically all animals in the PU and MU groups had multiple tumors. The number of tumors per animal 8, 16, and 24 weeks after urethane treatment was clearly lower in the PU group which had 4.2, 11.4 and 13 as compared with 8, 24.4, and 38 in the MU group. /239-Plutonium and urethane/

TERRESTRIAL FATE: Plutonium is generally immobile in soil(1,2). This is due to the insolubility of PuO2, the predominant form of plutonium found in fallout particles, and the interaction of Pu(IV) hydrolysis products with soil, minerals, and organic, surfaces(2). PuO2 remains within the top few centimeters of soil(1). Only a small fraction (<0.1%) of plutonium in soils is soluble and may be mobile in soils and taken up by plants(2). The mobility of plutonium in soils may be due to the presence of complexing agents or valence states other than Pu(IV), that are less likely to undergo hydrolysis, forming insoluble plutonium compounds(2). Physical processes, such as cultivation of soil, may redistribute plutonium compounds between soil layers(2). Erosion by wind and water will also transport plutonium compounds found in surface soils through the environment(2). Plutonium compounds are ionic and will not volatilize from dry or moist soil surfaces(SRC).

AQUATIC FATE: The Pu(III-VI) oxidation states can exist simultaneously in solution(1). Plutonium oxidizes rapidly, forming insoluble PuO2, which is the most common form of plutonium in the environment(8). Plutonium ions can form complex ions with simple hard Lewis bases, such as ligands with oxygen donor groups, in order of decreasing stability Pu4+>(PuO2)2+>Pu3+>(PuO2)+(1). Pu(III) ion forms weak complexes with fluoride, chloride, nitrate, and sulfate ions and stronger complexes with oxygen donor groups such as carbonate, oxalate, and polycarboxylate ligands (e.g., citrate and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid)(1). Pu(IV) forms polyatomic complexes with inorganic and organic ligands(1) and in neutral solution forms polymeric hydroxides(7). Pu(III) hydrolyzes at approximately pH 7 with the first hydrolysis product Pu(OH)2+(1). Pu(V) begins to hydrolyze about pH 9(1). The hydrolysis and complexation behavior of Pu(III) is similar to that of the 3+ ions of the lanthanide series due to their similar electronic structure, ionic radii, and charge(1). Hydrolysis is extensive for Pu(IV), and less extensive in Pu(III) and Pu(VI); hydrolysis is least extensive for Pu(V)(1). Complete hydrolysis of Pu(IV) produces a green precipitate of Pu(OH)4(1). Pu(IV) is unstable with respect to disproportionation(1). Pu(V) is usually unstable and disproportionates to Pu(VI) and Pu(IV) or Pu(III). Plutonium in most oxidation states readily complexes carbonate and bicarbonate ion, which are commonly found under environmental conditions in water(1). Partition coefficients (Kd) ranging from 8X10+4 to 1.5X10+5 were determined for (239+240)Pu in arctic surface sediments from the Kara Sea(2). Measurements of the distribution of the oxidation states of plutonium in filtered water samples from the Irish Seas showed that 87% was in the plutonium(V) state, with little variation geographically or temporally and between surface and bottom waters(3). In open oxygenated waters, plutonium is primarily in its oxidized form (Pu(V)), with smaller fractions in a reduced form (Pu(IV)) or associated with suspended particulate matter(3). However, in waters with higher levels of dissolved organic carbon, Pu(V) is reduced to Pu(IV), which is associated with particulate matter(3). In most natural aquatic systems, plutonium is associated with either sediments or suspended particles; in areas where the amount of solid phase is limited plutonium remains in the dissolved phase(4). Kd values ranging from 1X10+5 to 7X10+5 L/kg have been reported for plutonium with suspended particulate in environmental waters(9,10).It has been shown that plutonium associated with colloidal materials can be mobile in groundwater systems over large distances and can bind and transport radionuclides(8). Plutonium compounds are ionic and would not volatilize from water surfaces(SRC). Bioconcentration factors of 1.6X10+4 and 2X10+3 in brown macroalgae and <500 and 40 in fish muscle were reported for (239+240)Pu(5). Bioconcentration factors of 1,000 for mollusks and algae, 100 in crustacea, and 10 for fish have been reported for plutonium(6). Plutonium was found to accumulated in bones of fish, rather than in muscle tissue(6).

Assessments of potential internal exposures of the child following radionuclide intakes by the mother require consideration of transfers during lactation as well as during pregnancy. Current ICRP work on internal dosimetry includes the estimation of radiation doses to newborn infants from radionuclides ingested in mothers' milk. ... Comparisons of model predictions show ... low values of less than 0.01% for plutonium-239 ... . The corresponding infant doses from milk consumption are estimated in preliminary calculations to be ... <0.1% for plutonium-239 ...

The alpha radiation plutonium emits does not penetrate the skin but can irradiate internal organs when plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk are the skeleton, where it is likely to be absorbed by the bone surface, and the liver, where it collects and becomes concentrated. The ionizing radiation produced by plutonium causes cellular damage that includes DNA breakage, accurate or inaccurate repair, apoptosis, gene mutations, chromosomal change, and genetic instability. This leads to loss of normal cell and tissue homeostasis, and development of malignancy. Ionizing radiation that does not directly damage DNA can produce reactive oxygen intermediates that directly affect the stability of p53, an important enzyme in cell-cycle regulation, and produce oxidative damage to individual bases in DNA and point mutations by mispairing during DNA replication. (L1837, L1841)

Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the National Response Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this designated hazardous substance, in an amount equal to or greater than its reportable quantity of 1000 curies or 37 TBq. The toll free number of the NRC is (800) 424-8802. The rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR 302.4 (section IV. D.3.b). /Plutonium-234/

Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the National Response Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this designated hazardous substance, in an amount equal to or greater than its reportable quantity of 1000 curies or 37 TBq. The toll free number of the NRC is (800) 424-8802. The rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR 302.4 (section IV. D.3.b). /Plutonium-235/

Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the National Response Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this designated hazardous substance, in an amount equal to or greater than its reportable quantity of 0.1 curie or 0.0037 TBq. The toll free number of the NRC is (800) 424-8802. The rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR 302.4 (section IV. D.3.b). /Plutonium-236/

Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the National Response Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this designated hazardous substance, in an amount equal to or greater than its reportable quantity of 1000 curies or 37 TBq. The toll free number of the NRC is (800) 424-8802. The rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR 302.4 (section IV. D.3.b). /Plutonium-237/

For more CERCLA Reportable Quantities (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (12 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Used to generate heat and electricity; Used in pacemaker batteries; (Pu-238); Used as a fuel for nuclear reactors and bombs (Pu-239); [Merck Index # 7541] In 1948-1958, the Mayak Production Association produced plutonium nuclear weapons in the Soviet Union. About 21,500 workers were exposed to radiation with the highest dose >1000 rad and the average dose about 80 rad. A study found 16 osteosarcomas, 8 chondrosarcomas, and 9 soft tissue sarcomas. Most of these cancers occurred 20 or more years after first exposure. The plutonium exposures received by the Mayak workers were enormous and much larger than experienced anywhere else in the world. Other studies of workers exposed to substantially lower plutonium doses have found no excess bone cancers. [Schottenfeld, p. 950]

Uses of Plutonium Isotopes: Plutonium-236, plutonium-237. Popular environmental and biological chemical tracers. Both available in microcurie quantities. Plutonium-238. Small thermal and electric-power generators. Available in various isotopic enrichments, ranging from 78% to 99+%. Plutonium-239. Nuclear weapons and as a fast reactor fuel. Also, frequently used in chemical research where production-grade material of mixed isotopic content is suitable. Available enrichments range from 97% to 99.99+%. Plutonium-240. Principally in flux monitors for fast reactors. Available enrichments range from 93% to 99+%. Plutonium-241. The parent from which high-assay americium-241 can be isolated for industrial purposes. Samples available in enrichments of 93%. Plutonium-242. For study of the physical properties of plutonium; also as a mass spectroscopy tracer and standard. Samples available in enrichments ranging from 95% to 99.9+%; enrichments of production-grade material range from 85% to 95%. Plutonium-244. Currently, the only isotope available as a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Standard Reference Material (SRM). /From table/ /Plutonium isotopes/

Of the 15 plutonium isotopes, the two that have proven most useful are masses 239 and 238. Plutonium-239 is fissile, i.e., atoms of plutonium split upon exposure to thermal or fast neutrons. Chemical reactions can release a few electron volts of energy per atom; however, when a plutonium nucleus splits, it releases about 200 MeV of energy and two or three neutrons. This release of energy makes plutonium-239 useful for nuclear weapons and reactor fuel. In fact, in light water reactors (LWRs) much of the power originates from the fission of plutonium-239, which is produced by neutron capture in uranium-238. /Plutonium isotopes/

The short-lived isotope plutonium-238 has been used in radioisotope generators in unmanned space satellites, lunar and interplanetary spaceships, heart pacemakers /discontinued/, and (as 238Pu-Be alloy) neutron sources. /Plutonium-238/

The half-life of plutonium-238 is short enough (88 years) to create a high heat output and long enough to provide long-term power without replenishment. These characteristics make it an ideal heat source for thermoelectric generators. These generators have been used to power ocean buoys and space satellites where long-term, reliable power is essential. /Plutonium-238/

For more Uses (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (10 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Plutonium is produced in nuclear reactors from uranium-238 that absorbs neutrons emitted by the fission of uranium-235, which is a naturally occurring uranium isotope found with uranium-238. Uranium-239 is formed and emits a beta particle to form neptunium-239 that decays by beta emission to form plutonium-239. Once started, the process is spontaneous until the uranium fuel rods become a specific uranium-plutonium mixture. The rods are dissolved in acid, and plutonium is separated primarily by solvent extraction, finally producing a concentrated plutonium solution. Pure plutonium metal can be prepared by precipitating plutonium peroxide or oxalate, igniting the precipitate to PuO2, converting the oxide to PuF3, and reducing Pu+3 to the metal in an ignited mixture containing metallic calcium. /Plutonium/

In the past, most plutonium in DOE facilities was produced for nuclear weapons and was composed of greater than 90 wt% plutonium-239 and about 6 to 8 wt% plutonium-240. This material has been referred to as weapons grade or low exposure plutonium. It is produced on a large scale by irradiating uranium-238 in moderated production reactors. Plutonium has also been produced as a byproduct in the operation of research reactors, and commercial nuclear power plants. It is recovered and purified by solvent extraction and ion exchange processes. The resulting highly concentrated Pu(NO3)4 product solution is converted to a nonhygroscopic PuF4 intermediate by one of several processes before being reduced to metal with calcium. Plutonium is also produced from the waste streams of the conversion processes and scrap recovery operations, which include material from research and development efforts. Other processes for reduction to metal include direct reduction of the oxide and electrolytic reduction.

Heat-source plutonium has the highest plutonium-238 content and can be produced by exposing uranium-235 to neutron bombardment until uranium-237 is formed. Uranium-237 has a short half-life (6.75 days) and decays to long-lived (2 million years) neptunium-237. Neutron activation of neptunium-237 produces neptunium-238, which then decays to plutonium-238. /Plutonium-238/

High-exposure plutonium, i.e., plutonium containing significant fractions of plutonium-240, plutonium-241, and plutonium-242, is produced in power reactor fuels. ... Reactor-produced plutonium goes through several different chemical processes before it becomes a solid metal. Irradiated nuclear fuel elements are dissolved in strong acid and the plutonium is chemically extracted from the solution. ... The solution is put through another processing stage that converts it from a liquid to a powder. ... The powder is then placed in a crucible mold and heated without melting until it becomes a solid metal.

For more Methods of Manufacturing (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (10 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Plutonium-238: Produced from transmutation of neptunium-237 by neutron capture. Available in milligram quantities as oxide powder at radiopurity of 80-97%. Plutonium-239: Produced by neutron irradiation of uranium-238 and electromagnetic separation. Available in milligram units as oxide powder at radiopurity of 99-99.99%. Plutonium-240: Produced by transmutation of neptunium or processing of curium-244. Available in milligram quantities as oxide powder at a radiopurity of 75-95%. Plutonium-241: Prepared by sequential neutron captures in uranium-238/plutonium by electromagnetic separation of plutonium. Available in milligram quantities as oxide powder at a radiopurity of 80-93%. All are classed as nuclear naterial requiring documentation of transfer. /Plutonium isotopes/

Plutonium-238 /was/ available from the Atomic Energy Commission at ... (80 to 90% enriched). /Plutonium-238/

Because recycling of commercial reactor fuel is not anticipated, future supplies of plutonium will be primarily from DOE production facilities and from reprocessing of current material. ... New sources of plutonium include the return of atomic weapon components and plutonium recovered from decontamination and decommissioning (D&D) operations. Foreign plutonium from states of the former Soviet Union may become an additional source. Their weapons-grade plutonium is believed to contain 5% plutonium-240. Americium is not periodically removed from their stockpile material.

At the end of their useful life, usually 5 to 15 years, sealed radioactive sources that have applications in medicine, industry, and research are defined as spent or disused. However, the residual level of radioactivity in some sources can still be high, representing a significant radiological hazard. If not properly managed and disposed of, such disused radioactive sources pose a potential health hazard to the public for periods, depending on the half-life and activity level of the radionuclides, which may extend to hundreds or thousands of years. ... The wide range of activities makes it convenient to classify radioactive source strengths as weak (<10 GBq), medium (10 GBq-10TBq) or strong (>10 TBq). Higher activity and longer half-life sources require a greater degree of isolation. Specifically, sources of particular concern for disposal are high activity sources containing cobalt-60, strontium-90, and cesium-137, as well as long lived radium, americium and plutonium sources. /Plutonium/

The first unequivocal preparation of metallic plutonium was in 1943. In 1941, 0.5 ug of plutonium-239 was produced and subjected to neutron bombardment. In 1942, a self-sustaining chain reaction was induced by fissioning uranium-235 in a large graphite natural uranium lattice. Some of the excess neutrons from the uranium-235 fission were captured in the abundant uranium-235, thereby producing plutonium-239 ... /Plutonium metal/

.. ca. 400 tons of plutonium has been produced in nuclear power stations outside centrally planned economies (i.e. excluding the former Eastern-bloc countries).

For more General Manufacturing Information (Complete) data for PLUTONIUM, RADIOACTIVE (8 total), please visit the HSDB record page.