Sodium Bromide

3.21

3.21 @25 °C

White crystals, granules, or powder

White, cubic crystals

Moderately soluble in alcohol

1 g dissolves in 1.1 mL water, about 16 mL alcohol, 6 mL methanol

In water, 94.6 g/100 g water at 25 °C

1390 °C

1390 °C @760 [mm Hg]

755 °C

747 °C

This chemical does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 22.6% (188 of 831) of reports.

Danger

H319 (11%): Causes serious eye irritation [Warning Serious eye damage/eye irritation]

P203, P261, P264+P265, P271, P280, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P318, P319, P337+P317, P403+P233, P405, and P501 (click each P-code to see the statement)

Aggregated GHS information provided per 831 reports by companies from 17 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory. Each notification may be associated with multiple companies.

Chemical: Sodium bromide (NaBr)

Sodium bromide (NaBr) is listed on the EPA's Chemical Data Reporting (CDR) system. Manufacturers and importers of Sodium bromide (NaBr) are required to report information about their production and use of this chemical to the EPA under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). (40 eCFR Part 711)

Status: Active Update: 12-05-2023 https://echa.europa.eu/registration-dossier/-/registered-dossier/15213

Sodium bromide: Non hazardous

European Commission, ESIS; IUCLID Dataset, Sodium bromide (7647-15-6) (2000 CD-ROM edition) contains information on use, toxicology, and environmental effects of this chemical as supplied to the European Union by industry.[Available from, as of June 1, 2010: http://esis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/]

USEPA/Office of Pesticide Programs; Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document - Inorganic Halides. The RED summarizes the risk assessment conclusions and outlines any risk reduction measures necessary for the pesticide to continue to be registered in the U.S.[Available from, as of July 12, 2010: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm]

Residues of the following chemical substances are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good manufacturing practice as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation, provided that the substance is applied on a semi-permanent or permanent food-contact surface (other than being applied on food packaging) with adequate draining before contact with food. ... (c) The following chemical substances when used as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation may be applied to: Food-processing equipment and utensils. Sodium bromide is included on this list. Limit: When ready for use, the end-use concentration of all bromide-producing chemicals in the solution is not to exceed 200 ppm total available halogen.

The Agency has determined that sodium bromide ... products, labeled and used as specified in this Reregistration Eligibility Decision document, will not pose unreasonable risks or adverse effects to humans or the environment. Although the Agency has found that all uses of sodium bromide ... are eligible for reregistration, it should be understood that the Agency may take appropriate regulatory action, and/or require the submission of additional data to support the registration of products containing sodium bromide ... if new information comes to the Agency's attention of if the data requirements for regulation (or the guidelines for generation such data) change.

As the federal pesticide law FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive review of older pesticides to consider their health and environmental effects and make decisions about their continued use. Under this pesticide reregistration program, EPA examines newer health and safety data for pesticide active ingredients initially registered before November 1, 1984, and determines whether the use of the pesticide does not pose unreasonable risk in accordance to newer saftey standards, such as those described in the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Pesticides for which EPA had not issued Registration Standards prior to the effective date of FIFRA '88 were divided into three lists based upon their potential for human exposure and other factors, with List B containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List C, and with List C containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List D. Sodium bromide is found on List D. Case No: 4051; Pesticide type: insecticide (molluscicide), fungicide, herbicide, antimicrobial; Case Status: RED Approved 09/93; OPP has made a decision that some/all uses of the pesticide are eligible for reregistration, as reflected in a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) document .; Active ingredient (AI): sodium bromide; AI Status: OPP has completed a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) for the case/AI.

Incompatible with acids, alkaloidal and heavy metal salts.

The following salts are rapidly attacked by bromine trifluoride: ... sodium bromide ...

CSL00049

BROMINE + SULFURIC ACID + SODIUM BROMIDE

Warning- Incorrect concentrations of sodium bromide with concentrated sulfuric acid can cause bromine gas to be released

Corrosive,Toxic

CSL00040 Bromination BROMINE

User-Reported

SRP: The most favorable course of action is to use an alternative chemical product with less inherent propensity for occupational harm/injury/toxicity or environmental contamination. Recycle any unused portion of the material for its approved use or return it to the manufacturer or supplier. Ultimate disposal of the chemical must consider: the material's impact on air quality; potential migration in soil or water; effects on animal and plant life; and conformance with environmental and public health regulations.

Residues of the following chemical substances are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good manufacturing practice as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation, provided that the substance is applied on a semi-permanent or permanent food-contact surface (other than being applied on food packaging) with adequate draining before contact with food. ... (c) The following chemical substances when used as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation may be applied to: Food-processing equipment and utensils. Sodium bromide is included on this list. Limit: When ready for use, the end-use concentration of all bromide-producing chemicals in the solution is not to exceed 200 ppm total available halogen.

13 [mg/m3]

140 [mg/m3]

830 [mg/m3]

EYES: irrigate opened eyes for several minutes under running water. INGESTION: do not induce vomiting. Rinse mouth with water (never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person). Seek immediate medical advice. SKIN: should be treated immediately by rinsing the affected parts in cold running water for at least 15 minutes, followed by thorough washing with soap and water. If necessary, the person should shower and change contaminated clothing and shoes, and then must seek medical attention. INHALATION: supply fresh air. If required provide artificial respiration.

Four chick bioassays were conducted to quantify iodine (I) toxicity and its amelioration in young chicks. A supplemental I level from KI of 600 mg/kg depressed growth in chicks fed methionine-deficient diets but not in those fed methionine-adequate diets. An I dose level > or = 900 mg/kg was required to cause growth depression in chicks fed a methionine-adequate corn-soybean meal diet. Iodine intoxicated chicks also displayed neurological symptoms and extreme malaise, but dose levels up to 1200 mg I/kg had no effect on blood hemoglobin or hematocrit. Supplemental I levels of 1000-1500 mg/kg caused severe growth depressions that could be totally reversed by dietary addition of 50 or 100 mg/kg bromine provided as NaBr. Nuclear accidents or terrorist actions that result in I toxicity and thyroid cancer or goiter may benefit from use of NaBr as a therapeutic agent.

Bromide half-life in rats ingesting 0.02-0.15 mole/L NaCl varied from 2.5 days during high NaCl intake, to 25 days during low NaCl intake.

Bromine vapour causes irritation and direct damage to the mucous membranes. Elemental bromine also burns the skin. The bromide ion is a central nervous system depressant and chronic exposure produces neuronal effects. This is called bromism and can result in central reactions reaching from somnolence to coma, cachexia, exicosis, loss of reflexes or pathologic reflexes, clonic seizures, tremor, ataxia, loss of neural sensitivity, paresis, papillar edema of the eyes, abnormal speech, cerebral edema, delirium, aggressiveness, and psychoses. (L625, L626, L627)

LD50 Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard duck) oral > 5633 mg/kg Sodium bromide 99.23%, 8 day

LD50 Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard duck) oral > 2150 mg/kg Sodium bromide 97%, 21 day

LD50 Colinus virginianus (Bobwhite quail) oral > 5633 mg/kg Sodium bromide 99.23% 8 day

LD50 Colinus virginianus (Bobwhite quail) oral > 2250 mg/kg Sodium bromide 99.23% 14 day

For more Ecotoxicity Values (Complete) data for Sodium bromide (30 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Bromine is a powerful oxidizing agent and is able to release oxygen free radicals from the water in mucous membranes. These free radicals are also potent oxidizers and produce tissue damage. In additon, the formation of hydrobromic and bromic acids will result in secondary irritation. The bromide ion is also known to affect the central nervous system, causing bromism. This is believed to be a result of bromide ions substituting for chloride ions in the in actions of neurotransmitters and transport systems, thus affecting numerous synaptic processes. (L626, L627, A543)

/BIRDS and MAMMALS/ Groups of /Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus)/ received sodium bromide at dietary concentrations of 563, 1002, 1784, 3167, and 5633 ppm for 4 days, followed by untreated feed for three days. Another group served as control. Signs of toxicity typical of intoxication with sodium bromide were seen at 3167 ppm and above and included slight to severe ataxia (increasing with external stimuli), wing droop, lethargy, ventral head curl, and loss of righting reflex. Few birds displayed signs of toxicity on day 8 of the study. There were no mortalities, and there was no effect on body weight or feed consumption when compared with controls.

/BIRDS and MAMMALS/ Groups of /Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhyncas)/ received sodium bromide at dietary concentrations of 563, 1002, 1784, 3167, and 5633 ppm for 4 days, followed by untreated feed for three days. Another group served as control. Signs of toxicity typical of intoxication with sodium bromide were seen at 3167 ppm and above and included slight to severe ataxia (increasing with external stimuli), wing droop, lethargy, ventral head curl, and loss of righting reflex. Few birds displayed signs of toxicity on day 8 of the study. There were no mortalities, and there was no effect on body weight or feed consumption when compared with controls.

/AQUATIC SPECIES/ ... The 24-hr median lethal concentration (LC50) values for these biocides with respect to 24-, 48-, and 72-hr-old Artemia, determined by static bioassays, showed the following rank order of toxicity /for 3 biocides used in disinfection of cooling towers/: tetrakis(hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride (THPC) < trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCIC) < and sodium bromide (NaBr). An age-dependent increase in sensitivity was seen for each compound. All three biocides reduced the phototactic response of 24-hr-old Artemia larvae in 24-hr static bioassays; the median inhibitory concentration ratios obtained were 30 to 40 times lower than their respective 24-hr LC50 values ...

/AQUATIC SPECIES/ The toxicity of sodium bromide for freshwater organisms was tested using algae (Scenedesmus pannonicus), crustaceans (Daphnia magna) and fish (Poecilia reticulata and Oryzias latipes). Depending on the species tested, the acute toxicity varied from 44 to 5800 mg Br-/L (EC50 values) and the No Observed Effect Concentrations (NOEC values) in the long-term tests varied from 7.8 to 250 mg Br-/L. Bromide ion markedly impaired reproduction in both crustaceans and fish. Histologically no effects were observed in the long-term test with Oryzias, but in the reproduction test with Poecilia, hyperplasia of the thyroid, atrophy and degeneration of the musculature and regressive changes in the female reproductive tract were observed. As a criterion of water quality, 1 mg Br-/L has been proposed, on the basis of reproductive performance in the Poecilia test. The concentrations found in surface water frequently exceed this value and sometimes reach levels at which acute effects on water organisms can be expected.

For more Ecotoxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for Sodium bromide (7 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Bromine vapour causes irritation and direct damage to the mucous membranes. Symptoms include lacrimation, rhinorrhoea, eye irritation with mucous secretions from the oropharyngeal and upper airways, coughing, dyspnoea, choking, wheezing, epistaxis, and headache. The bromide ion is a central nervous system depressant producing ataxia, slurred speech, tremor, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, dizziness, visual disturbances, unsteadiness, headaches, impaired memory and concentration, disorientation and hallucinations. This is called bromism. (L626, L627)

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ A total of 0, 4 and 9 mg/kg bw sodium bromide was administered orally to 45 healthy female volunteers. The experiment lasted for six menstrual cycles: only during the first three cycles was bromide administered; at the start, at the end of the administration period and at the end of the experiment a physical examination and hematological and routine clinical chemistry tests were performed. Except for nausea in relation to the intake of bromide, no adverse effects were observed. The bromide concentration in plasma rose to 3.22 +/- 0.93 mmol/kg in the 4 mg/kg group and to 7.99 +/- 1.89 in the 9 mg/kg group by the end of the administration period. Before and at the end of the experiment the thyroid hormones (T4, FT4, TBG, T3 and TSH) were analyzed. No significant differences were observed between the groups. Before, after three menstrual cycles and at the end of the experiment an EEG with a Visual Evoked Response was recorded. At the 4 and 9 mg/kg dose level in the alpha 1-band and the beta-bands significant changes were found (P < 0.1 and P < 0.05, respectively). The Visual Evoked Response showed no significant differences between the three groups. From this experiment and previous experiments a no-effect level in humans for sodium bromide of 4 mg/kg bw is proposed.

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ Bromide, 1 mg/kg daily, was administered to 21 healthy volunteers (11 females not using oral contraceptives and not pregnant and 10 males, during 8 weeks or 2 full cycles to determine whether ingestion of a dose equal to the acceptable daily intake might induce effects. Special attention was paid to the endocrine system because endocrine changes were predominant in rats receiving sodium bromide (NaBr) in their diets. There was no difference between the results of a full medical history and physical examination at the start and at the end of the experiment. The results from the measured hematological, biochemical and urine analyses did not change during the experiment. In females the plasma bromide concentration rose from 0.08 +/- 0.01 mmol/L to 0.97 +/- 0.18 mmol/L and in males from 0.08 +/- 0.01 mmol /L to 0.83 +/- 0.09 mmol/L (mean +/- sd). No changes were observed in the serum concentrations of thyroxine, free thyroxine, thyroxin binding globulin, triiodothyronine, cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone. Also no changes were observed in the serum concentrations of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) before and after the administration of thyroid stimulating hormone releasing hormone (TRH) and luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH).

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ Bromide excretion in the sweat after oral administration of sodium bromide was determined in 25 children with chronic and/or recurrent inflammations of the upper respiratory tract and/or dyspepsia. The results were compared with those involving the determination of serum bromide and sweat chloride levels. Increased bromide excretion in the sweat was observed in two children with mucoviscidosis ... The determination of sweat bromide concentration /was proposed/ for the differential diagnosis of mucoviscidosis.

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ Bromide (as sodium bromide) was administered to 21 healthy volunteers (11 females not using oral contraceptives and not pregnant and 10 males) for 8 weeks or 2 full cycles. Special attention was paid to the endocrine system. There was no difference between the results of a full medical history and physical examination and the measured hematological, biochemical, and urine analyses at the start and at the end of the study. Plasma bromide concentration was raised from 0.08 +/- 0.01 mmol/L to 0.97 +/- 0.18 mmol/L in females and from 0.08 +/- 0.01 mmol/L to 0.83 +/- 0.09 mmol/L in males. No changes were observed in the serum concentrations of thyroxine, free thyroxine, thyroxine binding globulin, triiodothryonine, cortisol, testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, TSH, prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) before and after the administration of thyroid stimulating homrone releasing hormone (TRH) and luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH).

For more Human Toxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for Sodium bromide (19 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Residues of the following chemical substances are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good manufacturing practice as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation, provided that the substance is applied on a semi-permanent or permanent food-contact surface (other than being applied on food packaging) with adequate draining before contact with food. ... (c) The following chemical substances when used as ingredients in an antimicrobial pesticide formulation may be applied to: Food-processing equipment and utensils. Sodium bromide is included on this list. Limit: When ready for use, the end-use concentration of all bromide-producing chemicals in the solution is not to exceed 200 ppm total available halogen.

The Agency has determined that sodium bromide ... products, labeled and used as specified in this Reregistration Eligibility Decision document, will not pose unreasonable risks or adverse effects to humans or the environment. Although the Agency has found that all uses of sodium bromide ... are eligible for reregistration, it should be understood that the Agency may take appropriate regulatory action, and/or require the submission of additional data to support the registration of products containing sodium bromide ... if new information comes to the Agency's attention of if the data requirements for regulation (or the guidelines for generation such data) change.

As the federal pesticide law FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive review of older pesticides to consider their health and environmental effects and make decisions about their continued use. Under this pesticide reregistration program, EPA examines newer health and safety data for pesticide active ingredients initially registered before November 1, 1984, and determines whether the use of the pesticide does not pose unreasonable risk in accordance to newer saftey standards, such as those described in the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Pesticides for which EPA had not issued Registration Standards prior to the effective date of FIFRA '88 were divided into three lists based upon their potential for human exposure and other factors, with List B containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List C, and with List C containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List D. Sodium bromide is found on List D. Case No: 4051; Pesticide type: insecticide (molluscicide), fungicide, herbicide, antimicrobial; Case Status: RED Approved 09/93; OPP has made a decision that some/all uses of the pesticide are eligible for reregistration, as reflected in a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) document .; Active ingredient (AI): sodium bromide; AI Status: OPP has completed a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) for the case/AI.

Seven adult male volunteers were dosed with 1 ml/kg of a 3% sodium bromide solution (30 mg/kg bromide) after an overnight fast, three initially by the oral route and 4 by iv injection. Each subject was dosed twice, over a month apart. Serum concentrations of bromide were measured at 2, 3 and 4 hours and 3, 7 and 35 days. Oral bioavailability ranged from 75 - 118% with a mean of 96%. Differences between routes were not significant. T 1/2 was 11.9 days after oral administration and 9.4 days after iv administration

Bromide ... is rapidly absorbed and steady-state serum levels have been reached in rats (strain not given) within 4 weeks. The biological half-life of bromide, and consequently the serum levels, are strongly dependent on chloride intake. /Bromide/

Bromine is mainly absorbed via inhalation, but may also enter the body through dermal contact. Bromine salts can be ingested. Due to its reactivity, bromine quickly forms bromide and may be deposited in the tissues, displacing other halogens. (L626)

The pharmacokinetics of oral and intravenous bromide was studied in 7 adult volunteers, who served as their own controls. They received 1 mL/kg of 3% sodium bromide, equivalent to 30 mg/kg bromide. Oral bioavailability ranged between 75-118% with a mean of 96 +/- 6%. Elimination T1/2 was 11.9 +/- 1.4 days after oral administration and 9.4 +/- 1.5 days after iv administration (P > 0.10) ...

The distribution of (82)Br in the mouse was studied by autoradiography at various intervals after IV injection /of sodium bromide/. (82)Br levels in various tissues were determined quantitiatively and expressed as percentages of the blood level. In the 24 hr after administration, the following organs had high Br levels (compared to blood levels): gastric mucosa, gastric contents, urinary bladder contents, blood vessel walls, and retina. High concentrations, but not exceeding the concentration in blood, were in: cartilage, tendons, lungs, compact bone, and thyroid.

The distribution of halide ions fluoride, bromide, iodide, chloride, and thiocyanate were studied in mice and rats by whole body autoradiography, microradiography, double tracer autoradiography, and scintillation counting methods. Bromide showed a high concentration in blood after IV injection for a long time. Bromide accumulated in the blood vessel walls. A low concentration was seen in the central nervous system. After 4 - 24 hr bromide concentrations in the central nervous system were 1/3 of blood level. Some concentration was seen in gastric mucosa, pituitary gland, bone, and cartilage, and high concentrations in the salivary glands, teeth, and eyes. Little to no accumulation was seen in the intestinal mucosa, liver, lymphatic tissue, ovaries, muscles, and thyroid.

The steady-state distribution of bromide in the nervous system of the rabbit was studied at various plasma concentration levels (0.5 - 20 nM). Utilizing a ventriculo-cisternal perfusion system, the flux of bromide between cerebrospinal fluid and blood was measured under various experimental conditions. The steady-state distribution of bromide in brain and cerebrospinal fluid was concentration dependent, and the brain served as a sink for the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. The flux experiments revealed that the efflux of bromide from the perfusion fluid was some 30% greater than the influx of bromide from the blood. The movement of bromide out of the perfusate was attenuated with increasing concentrations of bromide and on death of the animal. /It was/ suggested that at low concentration levels, bromide is rapidly cleared from the cerebrospinal fluid (by an active transport system) and the brain (by either the same or oxidation to bromate), while at high concentration levels the relative ineffectiveness of the proposed systems results in accumulation of bromide and the establishment of a state of equilibrium between blood, brain, and cerebrospinal fluid.

For more Absorption, Distribution and Excretion (Complete) data for Sodium bromide (10 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Found in some salt deposits; Used in photography, to make bromides and organic chemicals, as a therapeutic sedative and hypnotic, and formerly as a veterinary medicine; [HSDB] Used to control algae, bacteria, and fungi in water systems (pasteurizing, canning, pulp & paper manufacturing, and ornamental ponds); Also used to repel moths from clothing and fleas from pets; [Reference #1]

Pulp and Paper Processing [Category: Industry]

For sodium bromide (USEPA/OPP Pesticide Code: 013907) ACTIVE products with label matches. /SRP: Registered for use in the U.S. but approved pesticide uses may change periodically and so federal, state and local authorities must be consulted for currently approved uses./

PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMICAL

Photography, medicine (sedative), preparation of bromides

THERAPEUTIC CATEGORY: Sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant

(1977) No Data

(1979) No Data

(1977) 4.96X10+7 GRAMS

(1979) 9.94X10+8 GRAMS

2023: 85,000,000 - <100,000,000 lb

(1977) No Data

(1979) No Data

Production volumes for non-confidential chemicals reported under the Inventory Update Rule. [Table#5072]

Production volume for non-confidential chemicals reported under the 2006 Inventory Update Rule. Chemical: Sodium bromide. Aggregated National Production Volume: 50 to < 100 million lbs.

NEUTRALIZATION OF SODIUM CARBONATE OR SODIUM HYDROXIDE WITH HYDROBROMIC ACID FOLLOWED BY EVAPORATION AND TREATMENT WITH CARBON TO REDUCE THE BROMATE TO BROMIDE

Prepared commercially by adding some excess bromine to a sodium hydroxide solution forming a mixture of bromide and bromine. The reaction products are evaporated to dryness and treated with carbon to reduce the bromate to bromide.

Made synthetically by first causing iron to react with bromine and water. The resulting ferroso-ferric bromide is dissolved in water, sodium carbonate added, the solution filtered and evaporated

Grades: CP (chemically pure), crystals, powdered, commercial, pure, highest purity, and NF (national formulary).

The solid product is available in 25-kg plastic-lined bags, and a 45% solution is available from 55-gallon drums (208 L) up to tank car quantities.

93NF 152 (Nalco Co.) sodium bromide 42.8%

Applied Biochemists Yellowtrine (Applied Biochemists) sodium bromide 98%

For more Formulations/Preparations (Complete) data for Sodium bromide (45 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Oil and Gas Drilling, Extraction, and Support activities

Sodium bromide (NaBr): ACTIVE

INCOMPATIBILITIES: IN RELATIVELY HIGH CONCN SOL BROMIDES ARE ALKALOIDAL PRECIPITANTS. ABOUT 20% OF ALC PREVENTS PPTN. STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS LIBERATE BROMINE. MERCUROUS CHLORIDE IS PARTIALLY CONVERTED TO MERCURIC SALT BY ALKALI BROMIDES, MIXT BECOMING DARK DUE TO SIMULTANEOUS FORMATION OF METALLIC MERCURY.

INCOMPATIBILITIES: LEAD, SILVER, MANGANESE, ANTIMONY, & MERCUROUS SALTS CAUSE PPTN. ENZYMES ARE "SALTED OUT" OF SOLN BY BROMIDES IN FAIRLY HIGH CONCN. IN CONTRAST TO POTASSIUM BROMIDE, SODIUM BROMIDE IS HYGROSCOPIC & DUE TO THIS MAY CAUSE TROUBLE IN POWDER & CAPSULE FORMULATIONS.