Vanadium

Metals -> Elements, Metallic

Trace element

Specific gravity: 6.11 at 18.7 °C

6 @25 °C

Light gray or white lustrous powder, fused hard lumps or body-centered cubic crystals

Pure vanadium is a bright white metal; soft and ductile

Gray-white metal; cubic

Steel gray with a bluish tinge

Insoluble in water

Soluble in nitric, hydrofluoric, and concentrated sulfuric acids; attacked by alkali, forming water soluble vanadates

3407 °C

3407 °C @760 [mm Hg]

1910 °C

1910 °C

This chemical does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 95.4% (431 of 452) of all reports.

Not Classified

Aggregated GHS information provided per 452 reports by companies from 6 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory.

Chemical: Vanadium

Vanadium is listed on the EPA's Chemical Data Reporting (CDR) system. Manufacturers and importers of Vanadium are required to report information about their production and use of this chemical to the EPA under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). (40 eCFR Part 711)

Status: Active Update: 28-11-2022 https://echa.europa.eu/registration-dossier/-/registered-dossier/15421

Vanadium: Does not have an individual approval but may be used under an appropriate group standard

Flammable in dust form from heat, flame, or sparks.

Large pieces of vanadium are not combustible. The fine powder can burn.

Vanadium is a compound that occurs in nature as a white-to-gray metal, and is often found as crystals. Pure vanadium has no smell. It usually combines with other elements such as oxygen, sodium, sulfur, or chloride. Vanadium and vanadium compounds can be found in the earth's crust and in rocks, some iron ores, and crude petroleum deposits. Vanadium is mostly combined with other metals to make special metal mixtures called alloys. Vanadium in the form of vanadium oxide is a component in special kinds of steel that is used for automobile parts, springs, and ball bearings. Most of the vanadium used in the United States is used to make steel. Vanadium oxide is a yellow-orange powder, dark-gray flakes, or yellow crystals. Vanadium is also mixed with iron to make important parts for aircraft engines. Small amounts of vanadium are used in making rubber, plastics, ceramics, and other chemicals.

Less than 2% absorbed after ingestion; Primarily excreted by the kidneys; Essential mineral for some bacteria, but not known to be for humans; Reported use as a supplement by athletes and body builders; Rabbits and rats have liver injury after high-dose inhalation studies for 9-12 months; Kidney injury is observed in animals after intraperitoneal injections of vanadium; Animals dying from lethal doses have paralysis of hind limbs, respiratory depression, and convulsions; [Nordberg, p. 1347-63] See Vanadium pentoxide.

Section 8(a) of TSCA requires manufacturers of this chemical substance to report preliminary assessment information concerned with production, exposure, and use to EPA as cited in the preamble in 51 FR 41329. Effective date: 7/11/03; Reporting date: 9/9/03.

VANADIUM (FUME OR DUST) is a reducing agent. Finely divided form favors rapid or explosive reactions with oxidizing agents such as air or oxygen. Reacts exothermically with compounds having active hydrogen atoms (such as acids and water) to form flammable hydrogen gas and caustic products. The reactions are much less vigorous than the similar reactions of alkali metals. Can catalyze polymerization reactions in several classes of organic compounds; these polymerizations sometimes proceed rapidly or even explosively. Vanadium is used as a catalyst in the production of synthetic rubber and sulfuric acid.

Suitable extinguishing media: Use water spray, alcohol-resistant foam, dry chemical, or carbon dioxide.

Advice for firefighters: Wear self-contained breathing apparatus for firefighting if necessary.

Use dry chemicals appropriate for extinguishing metal fires. Do not use water. ... If material or contaminated runoff enters waterways, notify downstream users of potentially contaminated waters. Notify local health and fire officials and pollution control agencies. From a secure, explosion-proof location, use water spray to cool exposed containers. If cooling streams are ineffective (venting sound increases in volume and pitch, tank discolors, or shows any signs of deforming), withdraw immediately to a secure position.

The only respirators recommended for firefighting are self-contained breathing apparatuses that have full face-pieces and are operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode.

Keep container tightly closed in a dry and well-ventilated place. Handle and store under inert gas. Keep in a dry place. Storage class (TRGS 510): Non Combustible Solids.

Store in a secure poison location. ... Vanadium must be stored to avoid contact with oxidizers (such as chlorates, nitrates, chlorine, and bromine trifluoride), since violent reactions occur. Store the powder in tightly closed containers in a cool, well-ventilated area away from heat and sparks. Use only nonsparking tools and equipment, especially when opening and closing containers of the powder.

Containers of vanadium shall be kept tightly closed at all times when not in use. Containers shall be stored in a safe manner to minimize accidental breakage, spillage, or contact with moisture. Combustible materials, such as finely ground vanadium carbide, vanadium aluminum alloys, vanadium metal, or ferrovanadium should be kept away from heat, sparks, or flames.

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES: Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures: Avoid dust formation. Avoid breathing vapors, mist or gas. Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up: Sweep up and shovel. Keep in suitable, closed containers for disposal.

Evacuate persons not wearing protective equipment from area of spill or leak until cleanup is complete. Remove all ignition sources. Collect powdered material in the most convenient and safe manner and deposit in sealed containers. Ventilate area after cleanup is complete. It may be necessary to contain and dispose of the chemical as a hazardous waste. If material or contaminated runoff enters waterways, notify downstream users of potentially contaminated waters.

SRP: Recycle any unused portion of the material for its approved use or return it to the manufacturer or supplier. Ultimate disposal of the chemical must consider: the material's impact on air quality; potential migration in air, soil or water; effects on animal, aquatic and plant life; and conformance with environmental and public health regulations. If it is possible or reasonable use an alternative chemical product with less inherent propensity for occupational harm/injury/toxicity or environmental contamination.

Product: Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal company; Contaminated packaging: Dispose of as unused product.

Waste material contaminated with vanadium shall be disposed of in a manner not hazardous to employees. The disposal method must conform with applicable local, state, and federal regulations and must not constitute a hazard to the surrounding population or environment.

The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for vanadium: Concentration process: chemical precipitation.

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES: Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures: Avoid dust formation. Avoid breathing vapors, mist or gas.

Precautions for safe handling: Further processing of solid materials may result in the formation of combustible dusts. The potential for combustible dust formation should be taken into consideration before additional processing occurs. Provide appropriate exhaust ventilation at places where dust is formed.

Appropriate engineering controls: General industrial hygiene practice.

Gloves must be inspected prior to use. Use proper glove removal technique (without touching glove's outer surface) to avoid skin contact with this product. Dispose of contaminated gloves after use in accordance with applicable laws and good laboratory practices. Wash and dry hands.

For more Preventive Measures (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (10 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

0.045 [mg/m3]

0.50 [mg/m3]

35 [mg/m3]

Vanadium toxicity is a challenging problem to human and animal health with no entire understanding of cytotoxic mechanisms. Previous studies in vanadium toxicity showed involvement of oxidative stress in isolated liver hepatocytes and mitochondria via increasing of ROS formation, release of cytochrome c, and ATP depletion after incubation with different concentrations (25-200 uM). Therefore, we aimed to investigate the protective effects of Sesamum indicum seed extract (100-300 ug/mL) against oxidative stress induced by vanadium on isolated rat hepatocytes. Our results showed that quite similar to Alpha-tocopherol (100 uM), different concentrations of extract (100-300 ug/mL) protected the isolated hepatocyte against all oxidative stress/cytotoxicity markers induced by vanadium in including cell lysis, ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane potential decrease and lysosomal membrane damage. Besides, vanadium induced mitochondrial/lysosomal toxic interaction and vanadium reductive activation mediated by glutathione in vanadium toxicity was significantly (p<0.05) ameliorated by Sesamum indicum extracts. These findings suggested a hepato-protective role for extracts against liver injury resulted from vanadium toxicity.

IDENTIFICATION AND USE: Pure vanadium is a bright white metal. Vanadium is used in producing rust-resistant, spring, and high-speed tool steels. It is an important carbide stabilizer in making steels. Vanadium-containing catalysts are used in several oxidation reactions such as the manufacture of phthalic anhydride and sulfuric acid as well as in the production of pesticides and black dyes, inks, and pigments, which are used by the textile, printing, and ceramic industries. An important use of vanadium is as an oxidation catalyst in automobile catalytic converters. Other minor functions of vanadium compounds include their use as color modifiers in mercury-vapor lamps, driers in paints and varnishes, corrosion inhibitors in flue-gas scrubbers, and as components in photographic developers. Future application of vanadium compounds may include an increased number of uses as a catalyst, a potential role in superconductors, thermal or light-activated resistor-conductors, vanadate glasses, elecrooptical switches, and the induction of high magnetic fields. HUMAN EXPOSURE AND TOXICITY: Acute Overdosage: Headache, CNS depression, dry mouth, metallic taste, green tongue, abdominal pain, diarrhea, black stools, ocular irritation, occupational asthma, pulmonary edema, tracheitis, rhinitis, epistaxis, peripheral vasoconstriction of lungs, spleen, kidney, intestine, and dermatitis. Cross-sectional study recruited 533 vanadium exposed workers and 241 non-exposed workers to provide human evidence on serum lipid, lipoprotein profiles and atherogenic indexes changes in relation to vanadium exposure. Among male workers, a significantly negative association existed between low HDL-C level, abnormal atherogenic index and occupational vanadium exposure. This suggests vanadium has beneficial effects on blood levels of HDL-C and apoA-I. However, the other study found evidence of altered neurobehavioral outcomes by occupational exposure to vanadium. ANIMAL STUDIES: Some experimental animal studies reported that vanadium had beneficial effects on blood total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG). ECOTOXICITY STUDIES: Adult porpoises displayed significant higher concentrations of vanadium in livers compared to juveniles. Trace concentrations of vanadium have several benefits for plant growth, but high concentrations are toxic.

Vanadium damages alveolar macrophages by decreasing the macrophage membrane integrity, thus impairing the cell's phagocytotic ability and viability. The pentavalent form of vanadium, vanadate, is a potent inhibitor of the Ca+-ATPase and Na+,K+-ATPase of plasma membranes, which decreases intracellular ATP concentration. Vanadium is also believed to induce the production of reactive oxygen species. This may damage DNA and also cause oxidative stress, which can damage the reproductive system. Vanadium also inhibits protein tyrosine phosphatases, producing insulin-like effects. (L837, A247, A248, A249, A250, A251)

The assessment of vanadium exposure can be accomplished through measurement of vanadium. This test may be useful for assessing /exposure/ to larger than normal amounts of vanadium, but there was no information found in the literature showing a correlation of these levels with environmental levels or onset of clinical effects. Blood Reference Ranges: Normal - less than 1 ug/L; Exposed - not established; Toxic - not established. Serum or Plasma Reference Ranges: Normal - less than 0.24 ug/L; Exposed - not established; Toxic - not established. Urine Reference Ranges: Normal - 0.06 to 0.87 ug/L; Exposed - Workers exposed to average 8 hr air concentrations of 6.0 to 6.4 mg/cu m had urine vanadium levels between 2.6 to 4.6 ug/L in specimens that were collected at the start of the next work day. BAT for vanadium pentoxide (sampling time for long term exposures: after several shifts, measured as vanadium): 70 ug/g creatinine; Toxic - In a study involving controlled human exposure to vanadium pentoxide, where levels caused development of mild respiratory effects, the peak urine vanadium level was 130 ug/L at 3 days after exposure. /Vanadium/

Pulmonary Function Tests: The tests that have been found to be practical for population monitoring include: spirometry and expiratory flow-volume curves; determination of lung volumes; diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide; single-breath nitrogen washout; inhalation challenge tests; serial measurements of peak expiratory flow; exercise testing. /Vanadium/

/SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS/ Signs & Symptoms of Acute Overdosage: Headache, CNS depression, dry mouth, metallic taste, green tongue, abdominal pain, diarrhea, black stools, ocular irritation, occupational asthma, pulmonary edema, tracheitis, rhinitis, epistaxis, peripheral vasoconstriction of lungs, spleen, kidney, intestine, /and/ dermatitis.

/EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDIES/ Vanadium-containing products are manufactured and widely used in the modern industry. Yet the neurobehavioral toxicity due to occupational exposure to vanadium remained elusive. This cross-sectional study was designed to examine the neurotoxic effects of occupational vanadium exposure. A total of 463 vanadium-exposed workers (exposed group) and 251 non-exposed workers (control group) were recruited from a Steel and Iron Group in Sichuan, China. A WHO-recommended neurobehavioral core test battery (NCTB) and event-related auditory evoked potentials test (P300) were used to assess the neurobehavioral functions of all study subjects. A general linear model was used to compare outcome scores between the two groups while controlling for possible confounders. The exposed group showed a statistically significant neurobehavioral alteration more than the control group in the NCTB tests. The exposed workers also exhibited an increased anger-hostility, depression-dejection and fatigue-inertia on the profile of mood states (p<0.05). Performances in the simple reaction time, digit span, benton visual retention, and pursuit aiming were also poorer among exposed workers as compared to unexposed control workers (p<0.05). Some of these poor performances in tests were also significantly related to workers' exposure duration. P300 latencies were longer in the exposed group than in the control (p<0.05). Longer mean reaction times and more counting errors were also found in the exposed workers (p<0.05). Given the findings of our study and the limitations of neurobehavioral workplace testing, we found evidence of altered neurobehavioral outcomes by occupational exposure to vanadium.

/EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDIES/ Some experimental animal studies reported that vanadium had beneficial effects on blood total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG). However, the relationship between vanadium exposure and lipid, lipoprotein profiles in human subjects remains uncertain. This study aimed to compare the serum lipid and lipoprotein profiles of occupational vanadium exposed and non-exposed workers, and to provide human evidence on serum lipid, lipoprotein profiles, and atherogenic indexes changes in relation to vanadium exposure. This cross-sectional study recruited 533 vanadium exposed workers and 241 non-exposed workers from a Steel and Iron Group in Sichuan, China. Demographic characteristics and occupational information were collected through questionnaires. Serum lipid and lipoprotein levels were measured for all participants. The ratios of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) to HDL-C and apoB to apoA-I were used as atherogenic indexes. A general linear model was applied to compare outcomes of the two groups while controlling possible confounders and multivariate logistic regression was performed to evaluate the relationship between low HDL-C level, abnormal atherogenic index, and vanadium exposure. Higher levels of HDL-C and apoA-I could be observed in the vanadium exposed group compared with the control group (P<0.05). Furthermore, atherogenic indexes (TC/HDL-C, LDL-C/HDL-C, and apoB/apoA-I ratios) were found statistically lower in the vanadium exposed workers (P<0.05). Changes in HDL-C, TC/HDL-C, and LDL-C/HDL-C were more pronounced in male workers than that in female workers. In male workers, after adjusting for potential confounding variables as age, habits of smoking and drinking, occupational vanadium exposure was still associated with lower HDL-C (OR 0.41; 95% CI, 0.27-0.62) and abnormal atherogenic index [odds ratio (OR) 0.38; 95% CI, 0.20-0.70]. Occupational vanadium exposure appears to be associated with increased HDL-C and apoA-I levels and decreased atherogenic indexes. Among male workers, a significantly negative association existed between low HDL-C level, abnormal atherogenic index and occupational vanadium exposure. This suggests vanadium has beneficial effects on blood levels of HDL-C and apoA-I.

/OTHER TOXICITY INFORMATION/ Vanadium (V) is a minor constituent of the Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium (TiAlV) alloy currently used in cementless hip prostheses. /The/ present study /was/ aimed at verifying the correlation of vanadium levels among different matrices and assessing reference levels of the ion in a population of patients wearing a well-functioning hip prosthesis. Vanadium was measured using Inductive Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in whole blood, serum, and urine of 129 patients implanted with a TiAlV-alloy hip prosthesis. The values in the serum were above the upper limit of the reference values in 42% of patients (29% in urine and 13% in whole blood). A good correlation among matrices was observed (p<0.001). The cohort of patients (n=32) complaining of pain or in which a loosening or damage to the prosthesis was assessed showed a significantly higher excretion of vanadium in urine as compared with the remaining asymptomatic patients (p=0.001). The 95th percentile distribution of vanadium in the cohort of patients with a well-functioning prosthesis was 0.3 ug/L in whole blood, 0.5 ug/L in serum and 2.8 ug/L in urine, higher than in the unexposed population, especially for urine. The presence of a prosthesis, even though well-functioning, may cause a possible release of vanadium into the blood and a significant urinary excretion. The reference values of vanadium of the asymptomatic patients with titanium alloy hip prostheses supplied information regarding the background exposure level of the ions and their lower and upper limits.

For more Human Toxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Section 8(a) of TSCA requires manufacturers of this chemical substance to report preliminary assessment information concerned with production, exposure, and use to EPA as cited in the preamble in 51 FR 41329. Effective date: 7/11/03; Reporting date: 9/9/03.

(AZ) ARIZONA 7 ug/L

(FL) FLORIDA 49 ug/L

(MN) MINNESOTA 50 ug/L

(WI) WISCONSIN 30 ug/L

(CA) CALIFORNIA 50 ug/L

12 days for rats to eliminate from the kidneys after drinking water containing VOSO4; [Nordberg, p. 911]

A three-compartment model for elimination is described in humans, with half-times after intravenous injection of 1.2 hr, 26 hr, and 10-12 days.

Vanadium is excreted in urine with a biological half-life of about 20 to 40 hours ... .

Vanadium is absorbed mainly via inhalation, though small amounts can be absorbed through the skin and gastrointestional tract. It is rapidly distributed in the plasma, mainly to the kidney, liver, lungs, heart, bone, where it tends to accumulate. With the help of cytochrome P-450 enzymes, it can interconvert between its two oxidation states, vanadyl (V+4) and vanadate (V+5). Both states of vanadium can reversibly bind to transferrin protein in the blood and then be taken up into erythrocytes. Vanadium is excreted mainly in the urine. (L837)

Absorption of vanadium from the gastrointestinal tract is poor, not exceeding 2% in humans. ... Absorbed vanadium is widely distributed in the body. In animals, the highest values are found in the bone, kidney, liver, and spleen. Bone maintains essentially unchanged levels for several weeks. Low concentrations have been detected in the brain, and in animal placenta and testes.

Urine is the predominant route of excretion of absorbed vanadium. Animal and human data indicate that excretion occurs in at least two phases.

Absorption: Primarily though inhalation; oral and dermal absorption is poor. Distribution: Although vanadium is found throughout tissues, the majority is found in fat. Elimination: Excreted through both urine and feces. /SRP:Disolution from prostheses is a route of exposure./

The bioaccessibility of vanadium metal has been investigated experimentally in vitro by simulating dissolution under physiological conditions considered to mimic the most relevant exposure routes (oral, dermal, and inhalation). Dissolved V concentrations were below 2% at the loading of 0.1 g/L vanadium, corresponding to a solubility of less than 2%. ...

For more Absorption, Distribution and Excretion (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (9 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Vanadium compounds are found in the minerals patronite, roscoelite, carnotite and vanadinite; Used in steel alloys, x-ray machines, and catalysts; [Hawley] Used in alloys, catalysts, pigments (ceramics and glass), and in batteries; Combustion of oil and coal are the most important environmental sources; [Nordberg, p. 1349, 1363]

Steel Producing [Category: Industry]

Ceramics making [Category: Hobbies]

The principal use of vanadium is as an alloying addition to iron and steel, particularly in high strength steels and, to a lesser extent, in tool steels and castings.

In the production of aerospace titanium alloys ...

In producing rust resistant, spring, and high speed tool steels. It is an important carbide stabilizer in making steels. ... Vanadium foil is used as a bonding agent in cladding titanium to steel.

(1987) 6.8X10+5 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1988) 7.0X10+5 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1985) 5.0X10+3 lb (ores); 6.4X10+5 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1986) 1.7210+5 lb (ores); 8.2X10+5 lb (ferrovanadium)

For more U.S. Exports (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (20 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

(1984) 1.3X10+6 lb (ores, slag, residues); 2.3X10+6 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1985) 6.0X10+5 lb (ores, slag, residues); 1.6X10+6 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1986) 4.0X10+6 lb (ores, slag, residues); 1.1X10+6 lb (ferrovanadium)

(1987) 4.5X10+6 lb (ores, slag, residues); 6.8X10+5 lb (ferrovanadium)

For more U.S. Imports (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (17 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

2023: 10,000,000 - <25,000,000 lb

Non-confidential 2012 Chemical Data Reporting (CDR) information on the production and use of chemicals manufactured or imported into the United States. Chemical: Vanadium. National Production Volume: 7,942,722 lb/yr.

Vanadium: Production: Production, mine, mill:

Increased demand for vanadium products came mostly from the steel industry which had the highest 1st half shipments since 1980. Although all major steel consuming sectors increased purchases, the oil and gas industry reported the biggest change, more than 120% from the same period in 1987. The extraordinary demand for vanadium created shortages of vanadium raw materials ... (1988).

About 80% of the vanadium now produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive.

Major end-use distribution was as follows: machinery and tools, 34%; transportation, 23%; building and heavy construction, 18%; and other, 25% (1990).

Major areas of use: steel, 85%; nonferrous alloys, 9%; chemical industry, 4%; and others, 2%.

For more Consumption Patterns (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (8 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Vanadium metal can be prepared either by the reduction of vanadium chloride with hydrogen or magnesium or by the reduction of vanadium oxide with calcium, aluminum, or carbon. The oldest and most commonly used method for producing vanadium metal on a commercial scale is the reduction of V2O5 with calcium. Recently, a two-step process involving the aluminothermic reduction of vanadium oxide combined with electron-beam melting has been developed. This method makes possible the production of a purer grade of vanadium metal, i.e., of the quality required for nuclear reactors.

... Vanadium can be purified by ... iodide refining (van Arkel-deBoer process), electrolytic refining in a fused salt, and electrotransport. Metal of greater than 99.95% purity has been prepared by the iodide refining method. ... An electrolytic process for purifying crude vanadium was developed at the USA Bureau of Mines. ... Metal crystals or flakes of up to 99.995% purity have been obtained by this method. The highest purity vanadium reported has been purified by an electrotransport technique. ... Small amounts of vanadium containing less than 10 ppm of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen and having a resistance ratio, R300 K:R4.2 K, of greater than 1100 have been prepared by this technique.

(1) Calcium reduction of vanadium pentoxide yields 99.8+% pure ductile vanadium; (2) aluminum, cerium, etc., reduction produces a less pure product; (3) solvent extraction of petroleum ash or ferrophosphorus slag from phosphorus production; (4) electrolytic refining using a molten salt electrolyte containing vanadium chloride.

Vanadium powder can be prepared by substituting V2O3 for the V2O5 as the vanadium source. The heat generated during the reduction of the trioxide is considerably less than for the pentoxide, so that only solid products are obtained. The powder is recovered from the product by leaching the slag with dilute acid.

For more Methods of Manufacturing (Complete) data for VANADIUM, ELEMENTAL (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

Wholesale and Retail Trade

Vanadium: ACTIVE

The United States dominated world vanadium production for all uses until the late 1960s when several countries, notably the former USSR, expanded production significantly. At about the same time, the United States shifted from being a net exporter to a net importer; this situation continues.

Steels containing various combinations of other alloying elements can be substituted for steels containing vanadium. Certain metals, such as manganese, molybdenum, niobium (columbium), titanium, and tungsten, are to some degree interchangeable with vanadium as alloying elements in steel. Platinum and nickel can replace vanadium compounds as catalysts in some chemical processes. Currently, no acceptable substitute for vanadium is available in aerospace titanium alloys.

Some tool steel scrap was recycled primarily for its vanadium content. Vanadium was also recycled as a minor component of scrap iron and steel alloys, which were used principally for their iron content.

The steel industry accounts for the majority of the world's consumption of vanadium as an additive to steel. It is added in the steelmaking process as a ferrovanadium alloy ...